An example of the use of personal analogy in teaching Geography: If

Vol. 11(8), pp. 721-731, 23 April, 2016

DOI: 10.5897/ERR2015.2574

Article Number: C64344058135

ISSN 1990-3839

Author(s) retain the copyright of this article

http://www.academicjournals.org/ERR

Educational Research and Reviews

Full Length Research Paper

An example of the use of personal analogy in teaching

Geography: If I were a mineral

Neşe Duman

Çankırı Karatekin University, Faculty of Letters, Çankırı, Turkey.

Received 24 November, 2015; Accepted 10 March, 2016

The objective of this study is to use personal analogy as a pre-organizer. The subject of the personal

analogy is chosen as minerals. For this purpose, geography teacher candidates were asked the

questions, ‘Which mineral would you like to be? Why?’ They explain the properties of the minerals by

matching them with their own characteristics. It is considered that the study will increase their

awareness level of the environment. The study was carried out with 67 geography teacher candidates

taking the Geomorphology Practice lecture in Karadeniz Technical University, Fatih Education Faculty

and Department of Geography Teaching between the academic years 2012-2014. The study is

phenomenological. The content analysis was carried out using NVivo 10 software on the data obtained

in the research and a model, in which the findings were visualized, was created. As a result of the

study, it was found out that most of the geography teacher candidates would like to express

themselves by amethyst due to its psychological effect, the attractiveness of its colour and its aesthetic

look. Furthermore, minerals were categorized under seven themes according to their aspects of

analogy, which are the impression, appearance, the process of formation, content, areas of use,

processing conditions and values. It was also found that geography teacher candidates use the

concept of the mineral in the place of element and stone. As a result of the study, recommendations

were given to promote the application of personal analogies in geography lectures at undergraduate

level.

Key words: Mineral, personal analogy, geography teaching, synectics.

INTRODUCTION

Being anxious in the face of a concept, event, fact or

situation that is encountered for the first time can be

regarded as a response that is in accordance with the

human nature. The process of defining, as well as

interpreting such a picture can also be complex. It may

not be possible to apply all known examples to this new

picture, and even if they are applied, it may not be

sufficient for its understanding. In this case, as also

stated by Kılıç (2007), a cognitive conflict is experienced

in order to make the world understandable. Trying to

understand the new situation in terms of the previously

known with a mental leap looks like a good solution.

There are modern techniques that can be beneficial in

reflecting this explanation to education and training

areas. Analogy and Synectics, which is based on

analogical thinking, are the leading techniques that

E-mail: neseduman@karatekin.edu.tr. Tel: 00 90 376 2189550.

Authors agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

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722 Educ. Res. Rev.

Table 1. The components constituting the conceptual

presentation of the analogy.

Analog

Target

Attribute 1

Attribute 2

Attribute 3

ensure learning the unknown with the help of known.

Etymologically, the Synectics technique emerged as a

result of the experimental studies carried out by Gordon

with regard to psychoanalysis in order to increase

creativity (Gordon, 1961). People become more creative

as they move away from the psychological effects

controlling their behaviours. The emotion-based

component of creativity is more important than its

intellectual information based component. Logic plays a

vital role in the behaviour control. The ability to act free

from logic is important in terms of creating innovative

products. Synectics that is based on these principles is

grounded on two procedures which are associating the

unknown with the known and making the known more

interesting (Gordon, 1961). The metaphorical and

analogical way of thinking is significant for understanding

and implementing the synectics technique.

Analogy, which is one of the most important learning

tools for teaching (Duit et al., 2001) is built on the analog

and target concepts. The components constitute the

conceptual presentation of the analogy in Table 1. In

analogies, the known is named as the Source, Tool or

Analogue where the unknown is named as Target or

Subject. The cognitive process named as analogical

thinking is a flow of information from the analog to the

target concept. Thus, it is important to know the structure

of the analog used in this process, as well as to

understand the semantic relations and similarities

between the analog and target concepts (English, 1997,

cited Bayazit, 2011). The components constituting the

conceptual presentation of the analogy are as Table 1.

An illustrated example of analogy is given below for a

better understanding of the structure of analogy (Glynn,

2008). The example is related to the contour lines within

the scope of the geography. In this analogy, it was

endeavoured to explain the contour lines with a pictorial

analogy. By drawing lines on the back of the hand the

contour lines were compared to the protrusions on the fist

and the attempt to explain the areas where the inclination

increases and decreases was made (Ministry of

Education MEB, 2011) (Figure 1).

There are many types of analogies which can be used

for various purposes. One of them is the pre-organizing

feature. Analogies can be used for organizing prior

knowledge at the beginning of the lesson. In this

research, it was endeavoured to exemplify the use of

personal analogy as a pre-organizer. Personal analogies

are based on the thoughts of students by personally

putting themselves in the place of a particular concept,

principle, person or object and making the analogy in this

way during the process of comparison that are planned to

be taught or that are known (Thiele, 1991, cited from

Şaşmaz et al., 2011; Özgürbüz, 2013). In the personal

analogy, the student can be asked to put himself in the

place of an object or another living being. The students

associate themselves with anything replaced by

themselves. The creative power of the students is

activated by asking them to fly like a butterfly, become a

tree in the forest and the minute hand of a clock. While

defining the personal analogy; Seligmann (2007) used

the expression It is imagining by an individual that he/she

is the object that is being studied upon (Ercan, 2010).

Therefore, in personal analogies, the analog is the

individual himself, and the target is the concept, situation

or phenomenon with which he associates himself.

Seldomly, analogies contain a classification within

themselves. In this context, Seligmann (2007) states that

the personal analogy levels created may differ. According

to Seligmann, the personal analogy levels are listed as

follows (Ercan, 2010);

1. Definition of the reality by the individual: Such kinds of

personal analogies are quite superficial and comprise the

listing of situations or realities only.

2. Definition of the emotions by the individual: This level

of analogy is not sufficient for the emergence of valuable

insights while it is at a higher level compared to the

definition of the reality.

3. Personal analogy towards living beings: Analogies at

this level are defined as Correct personal analogies.

4. Personal analogy towards objects: This is the highest

level of personal analogy. It includes the attribution of

human emotions to inanimate objects.

In the analogy based on starting from the known truth,

the students were chosen themselves as the object that

can be known best, in other words, as the analog.

Furthermore, it is necessary that they know the minerals

chosen as the subject or target well. The semantic

relationship that is expected to be established between

the analog and the target actually refers to the

relationship established between oneself and the nature,

in other words, how much one internalizes the nature. In

this context, our environment is quite a rich source for us.

As the individual gets to know it closer and understands

it, the source pool that will facilitate materialization will be

enriched. As a requirement of the analogies that are

defined as the expression of the similarity between two

concrete or abstract objects (Dagher, 1994: cited Bayazit,

2011; Haglund, 2012; Niebert et al., 2012); it is quite a

possible as well as enjoyable reflection of trying to

explain human, who has complex powers that are hard to

define by comparing him/her to certain pieces of the

world (for example, minerals, rocks, trees, clouds,

landforms…) that are regarded as his/her small forms.

Duman 723

Figure 1. Examples embodying the relationship between analog and target.

When the literature on analogies is examined (Ören et

al., 2011), it is seen that experts use their analogical

thinking skills in the process of building a bridge between

the source and the target in order to expand the analogy

example and also overcome conceptual difficulties

(Clement, 1987). Similarly, Kılıç (2007) also states in his

study that some teachers use analogies to help students

perceive and explain the concepts. Nevertheless,

according to Dinçer (2005) analogies get students adopt

the habit of respecting the opinions and thoughts that are

different from theirs as analogies ensure a constant

interaction between the students and their friends.

Furthermore, Clement (1983) states that in science

lessons analogies play an important part in creating a

new hypothesis.

Geography lessons internalize the nature. The more

the student dominates his surroundings, the easier it

would be for him to define and name himself. As is also

specified in the general objectives of the Geography

Lesson Curriculum, it is essential that students “gain

geographical questioning skills and associate basic

elements of the universe in the context of human-nature

relationship” (Ministry of Education, 2011). In order to

accomplish this objective; events happening inside or

outside the school should be used in order to emphasise

the place of geography in life and how it will change the

points-of-view of the students. Activities based on active

learning should be applied rather than transmitting the

phenomena or events or having students memorize the

course books. With modern methods and techniques, the

students should be encouraged to think and be

questioned using open-ended questions (Ministry of

Education, 2011). Today, geography teacher candidates

have a significant role to fulfil these purposes in the

future. In this context, it is also important to examine the

adequacy of geography teacher candidates in the use of

analogy.

The questions, the answers to which are sought in this

research in which the employability of personal analogy

at an undergraduate level in geography major is

questioned, are as follows:

1. What are the semantic relationships between the

analog and target concept in personal analogies created

by geography teacher candidates on the subject of

minerals?

2. How can the features used for the analogy be

categorized in personal analogies created by geography

teacher candidates on the subject of minerals?

METHODOLOGY

Research model

This research uses phenomenology methodology which focuses on

the phenomena that we are aware of, but do not have an in-depth

and detailed understanding of. Phenomena may appear in various

forms, such as events, experiences, perceptions, orientations,

concepts and situations, in the world we live in. Phenomenology

constitutes an appropriate research basis for the studies aimed to

examine phenomena which are not completely alien to us but also

the meaning of which we are unable to grasp fully (Yıldırım,

Şimşek, 2005). Phenomenology is a qualitative research approach

724 Educ. Res. Rev.

that focuses on what people perceive.

The data were coded, themes were identified, and after codes

and themes had been organized, the findings were explained and

interpreted.

Participants

The study was carried out with sixty seven geography teacher

sophomores taking the Geomorphology Practice course planned as

two hours (45 min each) at the Department of Geography Teaching

in Fatih Education Faculty of Karadeniz Technical University

between the academic years 2012-2014.

Data collection tool and data analysis

For the research, all members of the class were encouraged to

participate in the activity. As the first step of the research process,

the concept of analogy was introduced during one lesson hour (45ˈ)

and it was presented with various analogy examples. Personal

analogy examples were shared. Then the participants were asked

to develop personal analogies on the subject Minerals. Candidate

teachers were given papers containing an analogy that says If I

came to world as a mineral, I wish to be a …. because…. which

should be filled in and explained by candidate teachers. The

candidate teachers were asked to fill in the papers with their

preliminary knowledge and given a week’s time to research the

characteristics/properties of the minerals. Worksheets were

submitted the following week. The students were not asked to write

their names on the paper to allow them to express themselves

comfortably. The collection of minerals was introduced to the

candidate teachers over two weeks after (4 lesson h) where they

had the opportunity to examine minerals closely.

In the research, the characteristics of the individuals, which are to

be expressed, were chosen as the analog where the properties of

the minerals were chosen as the Target. Therefore, it was ensured

that individuals start from their own characteristics in order to

express the properties of the minerals (physical, function, etc.).

Candidate teachers put themselves in the place of an inanimate

object (minerals) when structuring the personal analogy. Thus, the

analogy that is required to be structured is named as the Personal

analogy towards inanimate objects and is of the personal analogy

type at the highest level.

The findings were analysed using the content analysis. The

NVivo 10 software was used to analyse the data. It is a software

that gathers the codes under specific themes by the researcher,

comparing many samples of data, quick repeating or reviewing the

actions made when required, reaching the results obtained on

request, establishing a relation between the codes and the

researcher’s notes and summarizing the data obtained in the form

of a model, matrix, graphic or report (Cassell et al., 2005). In the

content analysis, similar data were organized and interpreted under

certain concepts and themes. For this purpose, the answers were

categorized after being read by the researchers. After completing

the process, codes were gathered under themes where their

frequencies were calculated and interpreted (Yıldırım, 2005).

During the analysis process, descriptive statistics given by the

frequency distribution were also used. Furthermore, the view of the

relevant candidate teacher was given as an example for a better

understanding of the codes and themes in the study.

For the reliability of the research, the expressions in the

worksheets were coded independently by two expert researchers in

the field and field education and then the results were compared

where it was seen that both codes were over 90% compatible with

each other. In this way, it is observed that coding was performed

without prejudices and misunderstandings with common sense.

FINDINGS

The findings for the first research question are as follows:

In the first question of the research, the answer to the

question What are the semantic relationships between

the analog and target concept in the personal analogies

created by geography teacher candidate on the subject of

minerals was sought. In this context, findings showing the

semantic relationships between the analog and target

concept are listed in Table 2.

When Table 2 was examined, geography teacher

candidates identified themselves with Amethyst,

Aquamarine, Quartz, Ruby, Diamond, Coal, Obsidian,

Amber, Pearl, Olivine, Hematite, Emerald, Lapis, Boron,

Labrador, Agate, Platinum, Pyrite, Limestone, Topaz,

Diaspore, Mercury, Opal, Coral, Copper, Tiger's Eye,

Turquoise, Talk, Rock Salt, Pebble, Fluorite, Oltu Stone

and Amazonite, respectively. They used thirty-three

different examples in total to express themselves. The

expressions of the teacher candidates related to thirty-

three different examples are presented in Table 3.

The findings for the second research question are as

follows: In the second question of the research,

categories consisting of the properties used with regard

to the analogue were questioned. Analogues used by

geography teacher candidates in their personal analogies

regarding this research question were categorized. For

this purpose, the following model was created using

NVivo 10. As seen in the model in Figure 2, the analogue

properties used with regard to the minerals that constitute

the target element were divided into subcategories.

Accordingly, geography teacher candidates primarily

used the psychological effects the minerals have on them

in order to express themselves

Apart from these, they made associations that can be

grouped into seven categories, which are the

appearance, conditions and duration of formation,

content (structure), area of use, function and diversity,

the state of processing and preciousness examining

these categories in a more detailed way.

Minerals in terms of their effect

Those minerals that come to the fore with their positive

psychological effect are amethyst, aquamarine, quartz,

ruby, amber, peridot, hematite, emerald, lapis, onyx,

platinum, diaspore, tiger's eye, turquoise, fluorite and

amazonite. In terms of physiological effect, quartz,

aquamarine, ruby, amber, hematite, platinum, fluorite and

amazonite were used.

Minerals in terms of their appearance

Another category was created for the minerals used in

terms of their appearance. Minerals assessed in this

category were mentioned in the analogies as a result of

their colour, smoothness, plainness, aestheticism,

Duman 725

Table 2. Analysis of the personal analogies of Geography Teacher candidates regarding minerals.

Target

Relevant candidate teachers

Relationship

Amethyst

33,38,45,48,58,67

Psychological effects, colour, aesthetic appearance

Aquamarine

27,36,39,40,62

Transparency, hardness, colour, physiological effect (asthma), psychological effect (gives

abundance, luck, confidence and courage)

Quartz

13,19,53,63

Psychological and physiological effect (energy, radiation prevention), stability, protectiveness, variety

of colours

Ruby

30,49,52,54

Precious, rare, meaning of its name (queen of stones)

psychological and physiological effect (ensures spiritual development)

Diamond

18,24,46,66

Precious, hardness, aesthetic appearance, brightness, transparency, formation conditions,

processing difficulties

Coal

6,8,12,47

Precious, various areas of use, transformability, hardness, colour, no renewability

Obsidian

1,15,21,65

Conditions of formation, property of dissection, hardness, various areas of use, being affected by

external conditions, functionality, colour

Amber

42,51,57

Psychological and physiological effect (takes away negative vibes), conditions of formation, period of

formation, appearance

Pearl

41,61

Period of formation, conditions of formation, purity, organicity, colour

Olivine

34,55

Aesthetic appearance, variety of colours, psychological effect (gives joy, clears off emotional

coldness)

Hematite

37, 44

Psychological and physiological effect (reduces stress) attractiveness

Emerald

23,64

Psychological effect, meaning of the name (the stone of unconditional love)

Lapis Lazuli

26,50

Colour (stone of the skies), psychological effect (balance, thinking deeply, farsightedness),

heterogeneous structure

Boron

9,20

Richness of reserve, unrecognized value, strategic, heat resistant

Labrador

4,2

Iridescence, variety of colours, transparency, reflection, rareness, aesthetic appearance, processing

difficulties

Agate

10, 31

Variety of colours, psychological effect (prevents stress, prevention against evil eye)

Platinum

Resistance, psychological and physiological effect

Pyrite

Conductivity, brightness, hardness

Limestone

Cemented structure

Topaz

Colour, intensity of demand

Diaspore

Variety of colours, rareness, psychological effect (takes away bad energy)

Quicksilver

Various areas of use

Opal

Colour changing

Coral

Rough surface, colour

Copper

Various areas of use, functionality, intensive demand

Tiger’s Eye

Hardness, psychological effect, iridescence

Turquoise

Psychological effect (brings luck, protects against evil eye, increases wisdom)

Talc

Hardness, crystal structure

Rock Salt

Simplicity, transparency

Pebble

Accessibility, ordinariness, shape, way and process of formation

Fluorite

Psychological and physiological effect (increases concentration, takes away fears)

Oltu stone

Easily processes, colour, shines as it is used

Amazonite

Psychological and physiological effect

brightness, transparency and reflective properties.

Geography teacher candidates used amethyst,

aquamarine, coal, obsidian, pearl, oltu stone, coral, lapis

lazuli and topaz for their special colours. Quartz, peridot,

labradorite and agate were used in terms of their

variation of colour. Iridescence is one of the properties

that are used for zultanite, opal, tiger's eye and labrador.

The uneven surface of coral, plainness of rock salt, and

the aesthetic appearance and source of amethyst,

diamond, peridot, labrador and amber were used for the

description. The brightness of diamond and pyrite, and

shining of oltu stone by use were used in the analogies.

The transparency of aquamarine, diamond, labrador and

rock salt, and reflection of sun rays by labrador ranked as

726 Educ. Res. Rev.

Table 3. The examples of the expressions of the teacher candidates.

Target

The teacher candidate’s expression

Amethyst

T45: This stone collects the negative energy in its environment and turns it into positive energy, I think I also spread positive vibes

around.

Aquamarine

T39 :I am transparent like an aquamarine. I am straightforward. I do not think ill of anybody. And I give a tough first impression.

Aquamarine has a hardness of 7.5-8. However, those who know me closely say that I am soft-hearted.

Quartz

T19: When quartz appears white among the colourless and colouring minerals, it becomes “Milky Quartz”, and when it appears purple,

it becomes Amethyst . My character also gains colour when I meet different characters.

Ruby

T52 :As it develops understanding and toleration towards others…

T49:People should envy when they look at me.

Diamond

T46: I am a diamond; Not a lot of people can process me and please me.

Coal

T12: I bear the traces of the past, I mature in time, and I am precious at all times.

Obsidian

T21: It is a mineral that has always worked for human beings, just like the profession of teaching. Although their colours differ, their

purposes are always the same. It resists difficulties, sometimes falls apart. When it falls apart, it is sharper and more determined than

ever before; and for some people, it is sacred.

Amber

T57: It is like holding on to life by keeping the liveliness inside in the face of what amber experiences…

Pearl

T61:My existence began in the shell of an oyster; its resistance is quite high. It is hard to account for the structure of the shell… Its

calcium carbonate content is a deterrent against many threats. It isolates the intruders and cover them up with the mother-of-pearl.

Olivine

T55: There are times when I turn in upon myself. Light green reflects the times when I am sociable and talkative, and dark green

reflects the times when I turn in upon myself.

Hematite

T44: It would be a nice feeling to be able to give people energy and liveliness…

Emerald

T23: I would have liked to be an emerald and spread to everywhere of the world. Enter any home, reach anyone and distribute

unconditional love.

Lapis- Lazuli

T50: I may exist in different tones, but I am blue. I am not pure; I am the combination of different minerals. As a result, you see a

beautiful sight.

Boron

T20: Although I am unappreciated today, I would like to provide benefit to my country in strategic areas and serve people.

Labrador

T4 :I am colourless and spiritless without those who understand me, i. e. without the sun; but I reflect my seven colours with the sun.

Agate

T10: It is good for mental distresses, just like me.

Platinum

T11: It is resistant against chemicals. It is stable; it does not undergo corrosion against high temperature. I also do not sink into

pessimism due to external influences.

Pyrite

T25:I like showing off. What’s the harm in people thinking that I am golden although I am not? Maybe I can teach others to be happy

with small things with this trickery…

Limestone

T14: Family relations are important to me. I am attentive to establish a strong relationship with each member of the family, just like a

strong building. If it lacks cement, it cannot endure shakes. And the cement of this nature is limestone.

Topaz

T29: I bring luck, I believe in the evil eye, I want more wisdom.

Diaspore

T17: Diaspore is used directly after it is extracted from the underground, without processing. However, it is very hard to extract it. It

requires really fine manual labour. The person who will reveal my properties should also work very hard.

Quicksilver

T7: I am useful in so many things from the painting of the ships to the glazing of mirrors, and fillings that I do not know what people

would do if it was not for me.

Opal

T22: I shape and respond in accordance with the warmness I receive from others. I know I change colour with palm heat. Furthermore,

that it gets to the super ego attracted me as I am looking for perfection.

Coral

T5: …It has a rough and stained structure. It is not smooth and perfect. I am also not perfect; I think the humble and careless structure

of coral matches me.

Copper

T3: I would have liked to be copper as it is used and needed in many areas of daily life.

Tiger’s Eye

T28 :I am tough as well as fragile. I hide this characteristic of mine as I cannot easily pull myself together. Also, I have enhanced

empathy skills.

Turquoise

T16 …It has been demanded in all periods; I should also not lose my value at any time.

Talc

T32 That it is easily scarred exactly defines how I am now. I can be affected negatively even by the smallest things. Its bright crystal

state is the state I want to be in. I want to draw the attention.

Rock Salt

T36: Simplicity comes to the fore in one’s thoughts with this mineral. One decides easily. One knows what she/he wants. And this is in

parallel with my character.

Pebble

T43: I would not like to wait for the special occasions that happen a few times a year to meet people. I would like to be in a place

where they can always find me. I would not like to be one of those that are used only when they are happy. I can be a stone that is

thrown into the sea out of boredom. I can be one of those played by children…

Fluorite

T56: …as it increases concentration and eliminates the feeling of insufficiency…

Duman 727

Table 3. Cont’d.

Oltu stone

T59: This mineral shines by use. And I get appreciated as I work, and work more when appreciated, and shine like an oltu stone.

Amazonite

T60 : I make people who feel my existence accept changes in their lives easily.

Figure 2. The content analysis model with respect to the categories of the target.

the categories that represented the image in the analog.

Minerals in terms of the formation process

While pearl, amber and pebbles were used in terms of

the duration of formation; the formation conditions of

diamond, obsidian, amber, pearl and pebble were

mentioned in the analogies.

Minerals in terms of content (structure)

While obsidian ranked in the category assessed in terms

of the content (structure) with its conchoidal fracture

property; quartz and platinum were mentioned in terms of

their stability (resistance), and boron in terms of its heat-

resistance. The heterogeneous structure of lapis lazuli,

organic content of pearl and conductivity of pyrite were

among the properties that represented geography

728 Educ. Res. Rev.

teacher candidates. Aquamarine, diamond, obsidian,

pyrite, tiger’s eye, talc and coal were used for their

hardness, and the transformability of coal into a diamond

in time under high pressure and temperature was used.

Coal, obsidian, quicksilver and copper were mentioned

for their various areas of use.

Minerals in terms of their processing properties

In terms of their processing properties, oltu stone was

qualified as easy to process, while diamond and labrador

were qualified as hard to process. They constituted an

analog relationship with these properties.

Minerals in terms of the value

As the last category, minerals were mentioned in the

personal analogies for being precious. Topaz and copper

created analogies for being demanded since the ancient

times; coal for being one of the non-renewable resources

and the risk of its extinction; pebble for being readily

available everywhere and for everyone; ruby, diaspore

and labrador for being rare; and boron for being strategic.

Other findings obtained in the research process

Two questions take place together in other findings

obtained in the research process, which are “Can

personal analogies be used in the detection of

misconceptions? and “Which misconceptions were

observed in geography teacher candidates while creating

personal analogies on minerals? Objects with no mineral

properties were used in the personal analogies created

by teacher candidates on minerals. In the face of this

situation, the misconceptions encountered while

analysing the analogies of the research were not ignored

by creating the heading of other findings obtained in the

study process and presented under this heading.

As observed in Table 4, geography teacher candidates

tried to express themselves with the help of thirty-three

targets. The teacher candidates were asked to use

minerals as targets. However, the candidates have

misconceptions about the concept of mineral. Minerals

were used correctly only in nineteen target expressions

among thirty-three expressions in total. In ten of them,

stones were used while elements were used in four

expressions.

Misconceptions understood from the statements of the

geography teacher candidates are as follows:

Aquamarine, Ruby, diamond, coal, obsidian, amber,

pearl, emerald, lapis, limestone, topaz, diaspore, coral,

tiger's eye, turquoise, pebble and oltu stone were

regarded as minerals. However, these are all stones.

Some of them may be considered as precious stones

(diamond, topaz, turquoise, etc.). Coal, pebble, limestone

and sedimentary rock stand out, in particular. For, these

Table 4. Scientific definitions of the analogs used by geography

teacher candidates in their analogies.

Target

Scientific definition

Amethyst

Mineral

Aquamarine

Mineral

Quartz

Mineral

Ruby

Stone

Diamond

Mineral

Coal

Stone

Obsidian

Stone

Amber

Stone

Pearl

Stone

Olivine

Mineral

Hematite

Mineral

Emerald

Mineral

Lapis

Stone

Boron

Element

Labrador

Mineral

Agate

Mineral

Platinum

Element

Pyrite

Mineral

Limestone

Stone

Topaz

Mineral

Zultanite (diaspore)

Mineral

Quicksilver

Element

Opal

Mineral

Coral

Stone

Copper

Element

Tiger’s eye

Mineral

Turquoise

Mineral

Talc

Mineral

Rock Salt

Mineral

Pebble

Stone

Fluorite

Mineral

Oltu stone

Stone

Amazonite

Mineral

are among the stones that can be found in the

surroundings where the teacher candidates live, and they

can be frequently heard of in daily life. However, these

stones were qualified as minerals according to the

geography teacher candidates.

Another misconception found out as a result of the

research was that minerals and elements were confused.

Platinum, quicksilver, copper and boron are elements, not

minerals. The same is valid for these elements. These

elements were also regarded as minerals by the teacher

candidates. An Element is a substance that cannot be

decomposed by chemical weathering and obtained by

synthesis. Elements are pure substances consisting of

the same type of atoms and shown with symbols. An

element consists of the atoms that are of the same type

Duman 729

Figure 3. Minerals forming granite.

and not divided in their chemical reactions. They may

exist in solid, liquid and gas form. Minerals are

homogenous and mostly solid matters that exist in the

nature and have a particular chemical composition and a

uniform atomic structure. Minerals form rocks by coming

side by side (Ketin, 1982).

Rocks are mineral assemblages. They are formed by

the coming together of various minerals and stone

particles or numerous deposition of a single mineral.

Granite and basalt are rocks that are composed of

various minerals while sandstone consists of various

sand particles (Ketin, 1982). For example, as is shown in

Figure 3, Granite is a light coloured rock with an acidic

composition, which contains 10-40% of quartz, 30-60% of

alkaline feldspar, about 35% of mica and 10-35% of dark

coloured minerals (Quartz, feldspar and mica are

minerals).

The reason why students confuse the concept of the

element with the concepts of mineral and rock is related

to not having received an adequate level of chemistry

knowledge at the secondary school level. The reason for

the confusion of the concepts of mineral and rock may

result from the fact that the research was carried out

before the course “Geomorphology Practice.

The geography teacher candidates used the concepts

of the rock mass and rock with parallel meanings. This is

true in accordance with the literature. İzbırak (1969)

makes a definition for this issue by using the following

expressions: Matters that are the main substance of the

Earth Crust and consist of minerals are gathered under

the name stone. The solid and mass state of hard stones

is called rock. Rock means a stone that exhibits any

height in any place. While the term rock mass is related

to rocks. The same subject was expressed as follows in

another study (Sür et al., 2009). Matters of various

colours and properties that are formed of the minerals or

clastic materials constituting the main substance of the

earth crust are called rock mass (stone). In the

expression above, stone and rock mass were used

synonymously. In Atalay’s Natural Sciences Dictionary

(2004), it was also used synonymously as follows: Stone,

rock, rock mass: large and hard part of shell in general

sense; and hard and relatively soft Lithosphere part that

consists of the coming together of mineral parts including

mud, clay, sand and coral reef in the geological and

geomorphological sense.

As a result of the research, the geography teacher

candidates internalized the nature when building the

relationships between the analog and the target. Among

the teacher candidates who expressed this situation, T47

used the expression Each individual is a world. We are

actually the miniatures of the world. We are the nature.

We are from the nature.

Another example of the fact that the environmental

awareness of the teacher candidates increased is as

follows:

For example, T56 explained this by saying I have not

looked at my surroundings this meaningful so far. It is as

if each living being whispers me something this year.

Even the shapeless stones that we stumble on when

walking have a story, they have a message to tell us.

Therefore, it can be said that analogies are effective in

increasing the awareness of teacher candidates and their

interaction with the nature. It can be said that this also

stands out in the creativity of teacher candidates; hence,

it is seen that analogies shaped by their imagination are

dominant in the expression of concrete objects.

DISCUSSION

The results of the findings obtained from the worksheets

730 Educ. Res. Rev.

filled in by the geography teacher candidates with their

personal analogies including their justifications are as

follows;

Minerals formed analog in terms of their structure,

content and function. The target element with the most

analog use is the mineral amethyst. The effect of

amethyst on psychology, its colour and aesthetic

appearance manifest themselves as the properties

creating analog. In other words, it has been a tool for

individuals to express themselves as a result of their

function and structure. The geography teacher

candidates established a relationship between

themselves and psychological effects of minerals. Many

minerals were used as analogs in this sense. As is also

specified by Kılıç (2011), information on the effects of

stones on health is divided into two as objective

information the correctness of which is proved and

subjective information the correctness of which is not

proved; however widely accepted, in parallel to the nature

of the relevant subjective and objective science areas. A

physical and concrete effect of stones on human health is

a subject that is highly open for discussions that create a

slippery basis between these two approaches. The

tradition of taking shelter in the magical and talismanic

power of stones dates back to the earliest times, and

philosophers such as Plato and Herodotus have tales on

the healing properties of such stones as Lazurite,

Malachite, Nephritis and Amber. However, these tales

are not just surreal discourses as stones have been used

as alternative and objective medical tools in the historical

process, and are anecdotes that were shaped in the light

of the life experiences and certain rational data of the

antique times and enriched with the imagination.

Publications such as Sözer (2004) and De Agostini

(1998) seem to support these findings. It is believed that

the geography teacher candidates obtained this

subjective information by being affected by the press,

broadcast media, and trendy philosophical movements.

On the other hand the teacher candidates also

established a link between an inanimate object as an

expression of their imagination and creativity in their

analogies. In this sense, it can be said that analogies

make teacher candidates think creatively in the sense

that supports their readiness. Hence, studies carried out

in the literature also support this thought (Hoffman et al.,

2009, Haglund, 2013; Lancor, 2014). Therefore, it may be

recommended to use analogies at different levels and on

different subjects for the development of creative thinking

skills of teacher candidates.

According to the observations of the researcher, it can

be said that the use of personal analogy was effective in

order to determine the levels of readiness of the

geography teacher candidates on the subject, determine

their misconceptions or make an assessment.

Furthermore, an environment that will provide an

opportunity to get to know the instructor teacher

candidates, and the teacher candidate peers closer,

since teacher candidates had the chance to express

themselves with the personal analogy, was created.

Hence, studies in the literature also support this opinion

(Haglund, 2013). In this context, it can be said that the

use of analogies may be effective in the development of

empathy skills of a teacher candidate. On the other hand

carrying out a study based on the comparison of the

analogies to be created by geography teacher candidates

and teacher candidates in different fields (for example,

guidance and counselling) may be recommended.

Another finding obtained as a result of this research is

that teacher candidates generally do not prefer the

common minerals and generally prefer rare minerals.

This result made us question whether the teacher

candidates know the region where they live in a

geological and geomorphological sense. In other words,

their environmental awareness is insufficient. This

situation shows that it results from geography teaching

that is based on memorization rather than practice, and

independent from the environment where one lives.

Therefore, it is considered that a working environment

must be created combined with such methods and

techniques as analogical and metaphorical thinking,

synectics for an effective geography education.

When the findings are examined, certain

misconceptions stand out. Coal, pebble, limestone,

sedimentary rock, platinum, quicksilver and copper that

the teacher candidates probably encountered in their

preliminary experience or at least known were qualified

incorrectly and defined as minerals. The geography

teacher candidates confuse the concepts of stone (rock,

rock mass) and element with the concept of mineral

(Monteiro et al., 2012; Francek, 2013). Furthermore, the

need to emphasize the difference between precious

stone and stone also stood out in their expressions.

Appropriate learning environments to relearn or

remember these concepts should be created. For

example, research and study tours can be held to nearby

surroundings. Geography teacher candidates can be

made to collect samples during these tours and create

their own collections. Mineral, stone (rock, rock mass)

and element types can be presented in the field and

laboratories; the differences among them can be shown

in practice. In this framework, a project can be started,

and an indigenous stone and mineral museum can be

created. It is believed that this practice can also be

effective in terms of raising awareness towards the

environment and internalizing the nature. Therefore,

personal analogy, which is one of the synectics methods,

can be used in the determination of misconceptions.

Appropriate conceptual change approaches can be

preferred and used in order to eliminate these

misconceptions.

It was observed that using the nature and its elements

to express ourselves or using ourselves to explain the

nature was quite an enjoyable process that internalizes

the geography lesson. The philosophy of to know people

is to know the nature and to know the nature is to know

people can be taken as a basis.

SUGGESTIONS

The following suggestions can be made as a result of the

research;

1) A synectic study testing the effect of personal

analogies on creativity can be designed.

2) Analogies can be classified based on different criteria

such as types and levels of relationships.

3) Different techniques leading to misconceptions can be

adapted to the subject and compared with the results of

this study. Thus, the ability of personal analogies to

reveal the mistakes will be tested.

4) Conceptual change theories can be used in order to

eliminate the misconceptions.

5) It may be ensured that they get to know the rock

masses, minerals and elements better in field trips and

laboratory environments.

Conflict of Interests

The author has not declared any conflicts of interest.

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