Reading with Meaning: Teaching Comprehension in the Primary

Debbie

Miller

Teaching Comprehension

in the Primary Grades

Reading

with

Meaning

Foreword by

Ellin Oliver Keene

Stenhouse Publishers

Portland, Maine

Stenhouse Publishers

www.stenhouse.com

form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, or any information

storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher.

Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders and students for permission to

reproduce borrowed material. We regret any oversights that may have occurred and will be

pleased to rectify them in subsequent reprints of the work.

Credits

Pages 83, 113, and 114: “Ducks on a Winter Night,” “Dressing Like a Snake,” and “Song

1992 by Georgia Heard. Published by Wordsong/Boyds Mills Press, Inc. Reprinted by per-

mission.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Miller, Debbie, 1948–

Reading with meaning : teaching comprehension in the primary grades / Debbie Miller.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-57110-307-4 (alk. paper)

1. Reading (Primary) 2. Reading comprehension. I. Title.

OB1525.7 .M55 2002

372.4—dc21 2002017594

Cover photographs by Debbie Miller and T. John Hughes (center photo)

Cover and interior design by Martha Drury

Manufactured in the United States of America on acid-free paper

06 05 04 03 02 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

To the Public Education and Business Coalition, an

organization whose commitment to education inspires us to

teach and learn with passion, rigor, and joy

This page intentionally left blank

Foreword vii
In Appreciation xi
Prologue: It Doesn’t Get Better Than This 1
1 Guiding Principles 5
Establishing a Framework ■ Proficient Reader Research ■
Gradual Release of Responsibility
2 In September 15
Community: Creating a Culture and Climate for Thinking 
■ Building Relationships ■ Establishing Mutual Trust 
3 Readers’ Workshop: Real Reading from the Start 25
Book Selection: In the Beginning ■ Reading Aloud ■
Mini-Lessons ■ Reading and Conferring ■ Sharing
4 Settling In 39
Book Selection: Theirs ■ Evaluation: Mine ■ What About
Phonics and Word Identification?
5 Schema 53
Thinking Aloud: Showing Kids How ■ The First Schema
Lesson
■ Text-to-Self Connections ■ Making Meaningful
Connections
■ Thinking Through Text Together: An Anchor
Chart in the Making 
■ Releasing Responsibility: Small-Group
v
Contents
Reading with Meaning: Teaching Comprehension in the Primary Grades by Debbie Miller. Copyright © 2006. 
Stenhouse Publishers. All rights reserved. No reproduction without written permission from publisher. 

Work ■ Text-to-Text Connections ■ Schema Throughout 
the Year 
■ Evidence of Understanding and Independence ■
Schema at a Glance
6 Creating Mental Images 73
In the Beginning: Thinking Aloud ■ Anchor Lessons ■
Evidence of Understanding and Independence ■ Mental 
Images at a Glance
7 Digging Deeper 93
Taking the Conversation Deeper ■ Book Clubs for Primary
Kids?
■ Making Thinking Visible ■ Taking the Learning 
Deeper 
■ Work Activity Time
8 Inferring 105
Anchor Lessons ■ Evidence of Understanding and
Independence 
■ Inferring at a Glance
9 Asking Questions 123
Anchor Lessons ■ Evidence of Understanding and
Independence 
■ Asking Questions at a Glance
10 Determining Importance in Nonfiction 141
Modeling Differences Between Fiction and Nonfiction ■
Noticing and Remembering When We Learn Something 
New 
■ Convention Notebooks ■ Locating Specific 
Information 
■ Evidence of Understanding and 
Independence 
■ Determining Importance at a Glance
11 Synthesizing Information 157
Anchor Lessons ■ Evidence of Understanding and
Independence 
■ Synthesis at a Glance
Epilogue: In June  173
References 175
Index 181
Reading with Meaning
vi
Reading with Meaning: Teaching Comprehension in the Primary Grades by Debbie Miller. Copyright © 2006. 
Stenhouse Publishers. All rights reserved. No reproduction without written permission from publisher. 

here is a mystique about fine primary teachers. There is something

transcendent about them—almost superhuman. As a young inter-

mediate teacher, I regarded the fine primary teachers in my build-

ing with something like bewildered awe. There was magic in the air down

their hallway: those teachers were teaching kids to read, and although I had

studied reading theory, I still couldn’t figure out how they could do it.

What were they doing? What was their secret?

When I approached the primary teachers I most admired and asked

them to describe how they taught kids to read, they were often unable to

articulate just how all the pieces came together. “I’m not sure,” they would

say. “I just know what to do. I follow the kids’ lead.”

When I first met Debbie Miller, my awe grew tenfold. Colleagues had

described the warmth of her classroom environment, the depth of her rap-

port with young children, the seamless way children managed their own

behavior in her classroom, her unconditional respect for each child. I

couldn’t wait to meet another fantastic primary teacher from whom I could

learn. But I discovered a profound difference between Debbie and the other

fine primary teachers I had known. When I asked Debbie about her beliefs,

her approaches, her teaching strategies, she was able to define and describe

not just what she did with children, but why.

Debbie began one of our early conversations by sharing a research-

based belief statement she had written to guide her practice. She laid out

what was working as well as what was puzzling her about the children. She

didn’t pretend to have the answers, but she knew that through study of chil-

vii

Foreword

dren and through professional study, she could explore and eventually artic-

ulate exactly why her children learned and responded in the way they did.

She was serious about her work in the classroom, but that indescribable

magic was there, too.

Debbie was everything my colleagues had described and more. There

was, however, one quality they hadn’t told me about, and it is one I have

come to believe is essential to her success. Debbie was, and is to this day,

absolutely fascinated by children. As I came to know her, I realized that she

finds nothing so enthralling as kids, and her uncanny ability to describe her

successes in the classroom rests on her ardent observation of them.

In Reading with Meaning Debbie gives language to the mystique of the

superb first-grade literacy teacher. Specifically, she explains the cognitive

tools young children need in order to understand. With a written voice so

like the one I now know from countless conversations, she describes with

humor, respect, awe, curiosity, and joy what it really takes to help children

explore and understand their world and the texts written to describe that

world.

Debbie articulates like no other teacher I’ve known what matters most

in primary literacy teaching and learning. She makes the indescribable

world of young learners clear and real. She also has a novelist’s gift for

detail. Every reader of this book will laugh and cry and wince and gasp—

and, perhaps for the first time, really understand early literacy.

In writing this book, Debbie has undertaken a daunting task: to

define and describe the thinking processes a young child uses to understand

and what a primary teacher can do to teach those processes. The task is

daunting not only because it is difficult to articulate fine practice, but also

because all too many people in this country, teachers and nonteachers alike,

don’t believe that young children are up to the task. Can a first grader, for

example, really synthesize as she reads? Come on. Can young children

determine importance? If they can, isn’t it a fluke? Will they do it again

later, with another book? Surely they won’t become independent in their

use of such strategies. Aren’t they really too young to think that abstractly?

Don’t we really need to focus on comprehension instruction in the upper

grades instead?

In Reading with Meaning Debbie not only provides conclusive evi-

dence that young children can think strategically when reading, she causes

us to rethink every assumption we ever had about what young children can

do. She shows how children from widely varying backgrounds and with a

huge range of needs can become aware of their own thinking during read-

ing, learn to give language to that thinking, and use it to understand any

Reading with Meaning

viii

text more deeply. She shows us how children have an almost infinite ability

to understand and discuss even the most abstract ideas.

How does Debbie get her children to think and write and read with

the kind of fervor you will read about in this book? She believes they can,

she shows them how a proficient reader does it, and she provides the means

to make their thinking public. She is focused, purposeful, and clear. But

there is another piece, at least as important. As Debbie tells us, there is not

enough joy in our classrooms and schools. Given all the public urgency to

perform and all the seriousness with which we now approach early literacy

learning, there has to be magic, a bit of fun, a lot of joy.

In Reading with Meaning Debbie uses the natural seasons of a teaching

year to reveal the gradual process of immersing children in a rigorous yet

intimate learning environment followed by ways in which she introduces

and develops a range of comprehension strategies. As you work your way

through the book, you will live through the school year alongside Debbie

and her kids, listening in, glimpsing the exquisite development of thought

and understanding. By the end of the book, the end of the teaching year,

you will see how these first graders have come to understand concepts of

extraordinary complexity and how they can use the comprehension strate-

gies independently and with great confidence.

It isn’t easy to explain great literacy instruction for young children. So

many fine teachers say, “I don’t know, it just comes naturally.” Debbie

shows us that by defining and teaching the cognitive tools we all use to

comprehend text, we give children the tools they need to think and under-

stand with unprecedented depth. In this book, which I believe will become

a classic in literacy teaching and learning, Debbie Miller defines and

describes the instruction, and she tells us about the children’s successes. But

there is always magic in the mix, a little mystique, a bit of fun, a lot of joy.

Ellin Oliver Keene

January 2002

Foreword

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e were hot, sticky, and short on patience as we filed into the fac-

ulty lounge one afternoon late in May. Lingering smells of pep-

peroni pizza, microwaved popcorn, and ripe banana mingled

with a fresh bouquet of lilacs. We had been summoned by our principal for

yet another faculty meeting. “What could it be this time?” we wondered as

we sank into the odd assortment of chairs that lined the room.

“Guess what, everybody?” Doris announced cheerily. “We are all

going to become writers this summer!” Eyes roll. Pencils tap. Tony, the PE

teacher, shakes his head and groans. Unfazed, the principal continues.

“Raise your hands if you’ve heard of Shelley Harwayne.” Three hands shoot

up. “Only three?” she asks, looking shocked and holding up as many fin-

gers. “Shelley who?” I ask.

We learn that Shelley Harwayne will be in Denver for one week in

June, giving a literacy workshop sponsored by the Public Education and

Business Coalition (PEBC), a nonprofit group committed to providing

ongoing support and leadership for schools in the Denver area. We are

required to attend.

Thank goodness! (I say now). What happened that week is hard to

explain, but it left me forever changed. I already liked being a teacher, but

in just five short days I began to think about children, learning, and teach-

ing in new and exciting ways. I became passionate about my work and pas-

sionate about learning, too. It was as though I’d been starving, so insatiable

was my appetite to learn more about the kinds of teachers and schools

Shelley described.

Appreciation

I started to hang out in bookstores. Don Graves, Lucy Calkins, Connie

Weaver, Nancie Atwell, Regie Routman, and Shelley herself had me holed up,

reading and writing that whole summer long. I wrote in the margins and dog-

eared the pages of books, and I wrote notes and reflections in my brand-new

notebook. These authors’ words became my words; their visions for teaching

and learning became my visions, too. I couldn’t wait for school to start!

With the guidance and support of PEBC staff developers Steph

Harvey and Pat Hagerty, readers’ and writers’ workshops were up and run-

ning before the first snow fell. Gone were the “If I were a pencil” sentence

starters, basal readers, the bluebirds and the redbirds. And gone, too, were

the mile-high stacks of stapled work and activity sheets. I had taken, as

Shelley called it, “a leap of faith.”

Taking their place were literature and trade books, guided and indi-

vidualized reading, and opportunities for a wide range of responses.

Children were reading for longer periods of time than ever before, learning

to choose books to read that were just right for them, and flexibly using

strategies to figure out unknown words in the context of their reading.

Print covered the classroom walls, projects lined the window ledges and

spilled out into the hall. Life was good.

But then nagging questions started keeping me up at night. As I

planned for the week ahead, I’d wonder, “Am I really teaching kids every-

thing they need to know about reading?” I kept thinking that something

was missing; surely there must be something more for them, and me. I dis-

covered I wasn’t alone with these thoughts. Some of my colleagues had sim-

ilar concerns.

As if on cue, enter Ellin Keene. As director of the PEBC’s Reading

Project, she and other staff developers heard us. Through their collabora-

tion and expertise, a new model of reading began to emerge. Basing their

work on reading comprehension research, they showed us that we need to

teach children strategies for comprehension as explicitly and with the same

care as we teach them about letters, sounds, and words.

I’d found my something more. After years of collaboration with col-

leagues and work in the classroom, I have visions of my own now. And

words, too! The support and love of many have given me the courage to

write them down.

To Ellin Keene: you already know I think you’re brilliant! Thank you

for happily reading drafts over Saturday morning coffee, encouraging me

when I became discouraged, and being my friend through it all.

To my friend Steph Harvey, whose passion for learning exceeds that of

anyone I know: thank you most of all for teaching me to trust myself.

Reading with Meaning

xii

Thank you, too, for introducing me to Philippa, and for advising me to

“cut to the chase” when that’s what I needed to hear!

To Anne Goudvis, who gently scaffolded me into the writing world:

thank you for your friendship, sharing your wisdom, and helping me with

citations at the very last minute.

To Chryse Hutchins: thank you for your encouragement and your

insightful work with teachers everywhere.

To Kristin Venable, PEBC staff developer, former teammate, and fore-

most my friend: now we can go back to Saturday morning coffee at Sisters,

walks on the Highline Canal, and baby-sitting, too! Thanks for helping me

with computer problems, book organization, and rantings about quitting.

To Kathy Haller: never stop e-mailing me, and thanks for facilitating

all those labs. (Maybe we should start one in Vail?)

To Patrick Allen, Leslie Blauman, Mary Urtz Buerger, Bruce Morgan,

Carol Quimby, Cris Tovani, and Cheryl Zimmerman, gifted teachers and

staff developers who share their work and their classrooms with others on

what sometimes seems a daily basis: I’m honored to know and work with

you.

To Barb Volpe, Judy Hendricks, and to all those, past and present,

whose leadership and commitment have made the PEBC what it is today,

I’ll always be grateful.

To Philippa Stratton at Stenhouse: thank you for your patience and

knowing just when to call and exactly what to say to nudge me forward.

(And still it took me forever!) Also thanks to Brenda Power for her kind

words and encouragement, Martha Drury for her exquisite sense of design,

and Tom Seavey for his marketing expertise.

To Kathy Nutting and many others at Regis University: thank you for

a wonderful master’s program and for supporting my efforts to make

explicit my beliefs about children, learning, and teaching.

To my colleagues and friends at Slavens: you inspire me every day with

your wisdom, energy, and love of children, teaching, and learning.

To Barb Smith: thank you for hours of listening, sharing ideas, and

responding to my work with honesty. I love that my kids get to go to you

for second grade—you always know just where to take them next.

To Michelle DuMoulin: thank you for hosting labs with me and being

such a thoughtful teammate.

To Valerie Burke: thank you for your encouragement and for sharing

your stash of caramels!

To Sue Kempton: thank you for years of collaboration and friend-

ship.

xiii

In Appreciation

To Peggy Fuller: thank you for the many things you do for Slavens,

especially in the classroom. You lighten my load and let me do what I love

most.

To Joy Lowe: thank you, girlfriend, for bringing light and laughter to

our school, taking such good care of our kids when we’re gone, and teach-

ing us not to take ourselves so seriously.

To Charles Elbot, the principal of Slavens Elementary School: thank

you for supporting me in my efforts to write and teach at the same time,

and for giving all of us the freedom to teach with our heads and our hearts.

To the parents of Slavens students: thank you for your care and

encouragement, for trusting me to love and teach your children well, and

for your support of my writing.

To Darby Shaw: thank you for your interest in my work and for being

there the day I needed you most.

And kids: I love you! You already know that. But did you know you

are the reason I love coming to work? Did you know I learn just as much

from you as you do from me? And did you know that it was your smart

thinking that helped me write this book? You did? Good job!

To my very own children, Noah and Chad: I love you and am so

proud of the young men you have become. Being your mom is my greatest

reward.

To Don, my husband and best friend: I love you, babe! Thank you for

taking photographs, reading drafts, cooking, cleaning, and shopping so I

could write, and having faith in me even when I didn’t. And most of all,

thank you for loving me, thirty years and counting!

And in memory of my mother, Joyce Everhart, whose own love of

teaching never left me wondering what I wanted to be when I grew up.

Reading with Meaning

xiv

It Doesn’t

Get Better

Than This

ew crayons in bright red baskets sit at the children’s tables, flank-

ing caddies filled with sharpened pencils, markers, scissors, and

glue. The pencils stand tall, their erasers intact. All sixty-four

crayons point in the same direction. Markers fresh from familiar yellow and

green boxes have their lids capped tight. And the glue comes out of its dis-

penser with an easy twist of its orange cap and a gentle squeeze.

A basket of songbooks sits atop the small clusters of tables. Each holds

one or two copies of Five Little Ducks, Oh, a Hunting We Will Go, Little

Rabbit Foo Foo, Twenty-Four Robbers, Dr. Seuss’s ABC’s, My First Real Mother

Goose, Chika Chika Boom Boom, The Lady with the Alligator Purse, and

Chicken Soup with Rice. Assorted fairy tales, picture books, volumes of

poetry, and nonfiction text round out the selection.

In the meeting area, an old floor lamp and several small table lamps

glow softly, their shades decorated by children from years past. Plants that

have survived the summer are back home on the window ledge; paper flow-

erpots stick to the windowpanes, waiting for children to paint their bou-

quets. Empty picture frames await the smiles of this year’s girls and boys.

Low bookshelves filled with books sorted into labeled tubs define the

meeting area; ABC books sit alongside Arnold Lobel and Henry and

Mudge; space and underwater books nestle with the reptiles; and tubs

labeled “Predictable Books,” “Song Books,” “Fairy Tales,” and “Little Bear”

join “Insects,” “Poetry,” and “Biographies.” Picture books stand tall on

shelves of their own.

Prologue:

The Kissing Hand by Audrey Penn, this year’s choice for the first day of

school read-aloud, stands ready at the chalk ledge. The rocker and the

braided rug await us.

The writing table seems to say, “Get over here!” Paper of all sizes and

colors, lined and unlined, duplicator and construction, lies straight in

organizers that are just the right size. Six staplers and as many tape dis-

pensers line the back of the table, with refills close by. Small containers hold

paper clips, pushpins, sticky notes, hole punches, and staple removers.

Dictionaries and thesauruses stand at the ready on the ledge behind.

Unifix cubes, pattern blocks, calculators, and bright yellow Judy

Clocks; microscopes, magnifying glasses, slides, maps, globes, and atlases

fill the shelves in the math, science, and geography areas.

Wooden blocks and Legos left behind years ago by my own children

occupy another shelf. Buckets of plastic dinosaurs, insects, reptiles, and

other assorted animals are ready for play. Nearby, small tubs labeled

“Pastels,” “Beads,” “Buttons,” “Yarn,” “Needles and Thread,” “Fabric,”

“Stuffing,” “Clay,” and “Watercolors” are stocked and ready for work activ-

ity time.

Professional books stretch from one end of my desk to the other.

Nancie Atwell and Gay Su Pinnell, Donald Graves and Marilyn Adams

coexist peaceably. Ellin Keene and Susan Zimmermann, Lucy Calkins,

Shelley Harwayne, Georgia Heard, Richard Allington, Brenda Power,

Ralph Fletcher, Brian Cambourne, Joanne Hindley, Ralph Peterson,

Stephanie Harvey, Anne Goudvis, Harvey Daniels, Connie Weaver, and

others join them and are there when I need their counsel.

My plan book is open, all subjects and specials penciled in and

accounted for. Paper for individual portraits, first-day interviews, and forms

for the Reader Observation Survey and Developmental Reading

Assessment are ready to go.

Yellow, orange, purple, and green magnetic letters march across the

radiator, spelling “Welcome to First Grade”; the class list is posted in the

hall under my nameplate. Sweetheart, Speedy, and Floppsey are fed and

their cages pristine. As I take one last look before I leave for the day, I won-

der, “Does it get any better than this?”

Twenty-four hours later I find myself under those same clusters of

tables, picking up stray Unifix cubes, assorted crayons and marker lids, two

butterfly barrettes, an animal cracker, and one small white sock with lace.

On the tables, the crayons have abandoned the caddies; pencils are mysteri-

ously dented and have mixed themselves in with the markers, and the glue

looks as if it’s had more than just a gentle squeeze.

Reading with Meaning

My desk is piled high. Registration forms, emergency cards, testing

dates, and memos from the office mingle with money and checks for the

PTA, today’s lunch, and school sweatshirts. Notes from parents request Girl

Scout information, an overview of this year’s curriculum, and the date and

time of the Halloween parade. Two more parents have written to let me

know their children are gifted.

I plop into my chair and take another look. This time I notice the tiny

bouquet of dandelions in the red plastic glass, the happy purple, orange,

yellow, and green chains that now hang from our doors, and the “I luv U

Mlr” written on the dry-erase board.

Magnetic letters that once marched across the radiator now dance,

spelling Mom, Dad, LOVE, Zac, cat, and IrNsTPq.

Yesterday’s empty flowerpots hold painted bouquets of what I think

might be daisies, roses, geraniums, and tulips. Children’s portraits with

their too-high-on-the-forehead eyes, crinkled paper hair, glued-on earrings,

and bright red lips smile back at me.

I read over their interviews. Hannah wants to learn to write her little

letters; Cole wonders why the octopus squirts ink. If they could do any-

thing in the world they wanted, Eric would be a fireman, Will would go to

the moon, and Jake would live in the theater district in New York City.

When I asked Grace, “What’s one more thing I should know about you?”

she answered, “You should know I believe in fairies.” And Breck’s answer? “I

really want you to teach me.” Now I know for sure. It really doesn’t get bet-

ter than this.

Prologue: It Doesn’t Get Better Than This

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Charting children’s

thinking makes it visible

and permanent and

traces our work together.

Guiding

Principles

Cory uses the same

format for Tut’s Mummy

Lost and Found by Judy

Donnelly.

hen I think about the principles that guide my teaching of read-

ing comprehension, I realize that they are the same principles

that guide my work throughout the day. Gradually releasing

responsibility to children as they gain expertise, teaching a few strategies of

great consequence in depth over time, and giving children the gifts of time,

choice, response, community, and structure guide my work and allow me to

make thoughtful decisions based on principles I believe in.

It was Brian Cambourne who encouraged me to make explicit my

beliefs about teaching and learning. He supported me and my colleagues at

Regis University as we explored the beliefs, theories, and practices of others,

considered their implications for teaching in general, tried out new prac-

tices in our classrooms, and finally synthesized and made explicit our per-

sonal beliefs about teaching and learning.

When we know the theory behind our work, when our practices

match what we believe, and when we clearly articulate what we do and why

we do it, people listen. At back-to-school night, when I get questions like

“Are you phonics or whole language?” or “My child is reading at the sixth-

grade level. How will you challenge him?” or “Do you believe in ‘invented

spelling’?” my stomach no longer churns. I know what to say. No longer are

my answers vague, my demeanor tentative, my attitude defensive. No

longer do I say things because it’s what someone wants to hear. I’m clear.

I’m confident. I’m calm. Parents appreciate and respect a teacher who

“knows her stuff,” even when it doesn’t quite agree with theirs.

Or maybe the district is thinking of adopting a new spelling program.

I can look at it and know fairly quickly if it’s something that I could work

with. When an administrator asks us about leveling all the books in our

school library or the new assistant principal asks us to dye our hair green if

children read a certain number of books, I really don’t have to ponder. I

know just what to say.

What if you are mandated to do something that you know in your

heart is not best for kids? Look at it carefully. Maybe there is a piece of it

that will work. As for the rest? Chances are, both your method and the new

one have the same goals; maybe you just believe in going after it a little dif-

ferently. Think about how you believe reading needs to be taught, and be

ready to thoughtfully explain how and why. Then make an appointment

with your principal and do it. Most administrators listen and support

teachers when we speak with conviction, know the research behind our

beliefs, and present our point of view in respectful, rational ways.

There are many effective ways to teach children and live our lives. No

one has a patent on the truth. Find yours. Read. Reflect. Think about what

Reading with Meaning

you already know about good teaching and how it fits with new learning.

Read some more. Think about the implications for your classroom.

Collaborate with colleagues. Try new things and spend time defining your

beliefs and aligning your practices. Once you’ve found what’s true for you,

stand up for what you know is right. Live it every day and be confident and

clear about why you believe as you do. People will listen!

Establishing a Framework

Think about yourself as a reader. You probably choose what you want to

read for a variety of purposes, have opportunities to read for long periods of

time, respond mostly through reflection, conversation, and collaboration,

and sometimes share your thinking and insights with others. In a readers’

workshop, children have daily opportunities to learn to do the same.

Structured around a mini-lesson (15–20 minutes), a large block of

time to read, respond, and confer (45–50 minutes), and a time to share

(15–20 minutes), the readers’ workshop format provides a framework for

both strategy instruction and the gradual release of responsibility.

The mini-lesson provides teachers with opportunities to think aloud

and show how strategies are used to make sense of text. The large block of

time for reading, responding, and conferring allows children to practice

strategies in small groups, in pairs, and independently, and gives teachers

time to teach, learn, and find out how the children are applying what they’ve

been taught. The share time gives children a chance to share their work as

well as an opportunity for reflection, conversation, learning, and assessment.

Sometimes visitors ask me, “You mean you have a readers’ workshop

every day? Don’t the kids get bored? Don’t you?” Yes, no, and no. The truth

is, I can’t imagine having a workshop only two or three days a week, or leav-

ing out a component here and there, depending on my mood. Such ques-

tions always draw my eye (and subsequently the visitors’) to the quote by

Lucy Calkins that hangs above my desk:

It is significant to realize that the most creative environments in

our society are not the ever-changing ones. The artist’s studio,

the researcher’s laboratory, the scholar’s library are each deliber-

ately kept simple so as to support the complexities of the work-

in-progress. They are deliberately kept predictable so the unpre-

dictable can happen. (1983, p. 32)

Chapter 1: Guiding Principles

To get started, find ninety uninterrupted minutes in your day and put

your readers’ workshop there. No time like that in the morning? Look at

your afternoon. I’d choose a big block of uninterrupted time in the after-

noon over a chopped-up morning any day. The workshop won’t run ninety

minutes until after the first four or five weeks, but teach well and you’ll be

amazed how quickly your children will get there!

Proficient Reader Research

When Ellin Keene, then director of programs at the PEBC, handed me a

copy of the proficient reader research synthesized by Pearson, Dole, Duffy,

and Roehler (1992), my eyes glazed over. Who were these guys, anyway?

And what did they know about teaching real kids in real classrooms? Yes, I

knew something was missing in my readers’ workshop. I’d been saying I

wanted rigor. And yes, I trusted Ellin. But come on! This stuff seemed way

too ivory tower to me.

The article was published in the early 1990s; researchers had spent

much of the previous ten years investigating what proficient readers do to

comprehend text, what less successful readers fail to do, and how to best

move novices toward expertise. From this work, Pearson et al. identified

comprehension strategies that successful readers of all ages use routinely to

construct meaning when they read and suggested that teachers need to

teach these strategies explicitly and for surprisingly long periods of time,

using well-written literature and nonfiction.

The research showed that active, thoughtful, proficient readers con-

struct meaning by using the following strategies:

■ Activating relevant, prior knowledge (schema) before, during, and

after reading text (Anderson and Pearson 1984).

■ Creating visual and other sensory images from text during and after

reading (Pressley 1976).

■ Drawing inferences from text to form conclusions, make critical

judgments, and create unique interpretations (Hansen 1981).

■ Asking questions of themselves, the authors, and the texts they read

(Raphael 1984).

■ Determining the most important ideas and themes in a text

(Palinscar and Brown 1984).

■ Synthesizing what they read (Brown, Day, and Jones 1983).

Reading with Meaning

Sounds simple enough, right? But how exactly does one go about

teaching a few strategies of great consequence, in depth, over a long period

of time? Especially one who, after wading through the research, is seriously

wondering if she is a proficient reader herself?

I was always a fast reader, and therefore, I figured, a good one. In

school, I remember being among the bluebirds, flying high through story

after story, zipping through the questions at the end, and turning in pages

of neatly written seatwork with the pictures colored in just so.

But this stuff was different. What did they mean, think about your

thinking? I’m reading too fast to think. Interact with the text? Forget it; I

just want to find out what’s going to happen next. Draw inferences?

Determine importance? Synthesize? I’m not sure what those terms mean, let

alone know if I do them!

Still, I was intrigued. I wanted to learn more. And because of Ellin,

who recognized that the research had merit long before many of us did,

small groups of us began meeting once a week to try to make sense of it all.

Ellin understood that first we needed to learn about ourselves as readers.

She challenged us to be metacognitive—to think about our own thinking

as we read. We’d read books and short pieces, keep track of our thinking by

jotting notes in the margins, and then talk about the pieces and what we

were thinking as we read.

When we began to pay attention to what was going on inside our

heads as we read, we were amazed at what we learned about ourselves as

readers. We were making connections, asking questions, drawing infer-

ences, and synthesizing information. We began to create working defini-

tions for each of these strategies, realizing early on that the dictionary

definition was not going to cut it. (We fancied ourselves way beyond

Webster!) While friends chided us to “get a life,” we knew Ellin was right.

Only when we took the time to really get to know ourselves as readers were

we able to seriously consider the implications of the research for the chil-

dren in our classrooms.

Were we proficient readers all along? I’m not sure. Did all this height-

ened awareness simply bring to the forefront what was already going on

inside our heads when we read? Maybe. Regardless, I’m a different reader

now. I’ve learned to slow down and enjoy the ride; getting there no longer

consumes me. Ten years later, I’m still paying attention!

I find myself asking questions, inferring, making connections, and

smiling when I silently name what I’m doing. It’s not a loud, in-your-face

consciousness like it was in the beginning, but a soft, quiet, more natural

one, holding conversations with myself when I read.

Chapter 1: Guiding Principles

The proficient reader research has kept me in teaching. Not only was it

the “something missing” I’d been searching for, but it systematically raised my

expectations for children as well as for learning and teaching. And the best

part? Teaching isn’t as predictable as it once was. Every day I know children

are going to surprise me with their thinking, teach me to see and understand

things in new ways, motivate me to think deeply about my teaching, and help

me make thoughtful decisions about where to go next and why.

Gradual Release of Responsibility

Chances are that if you think back to a time when you learned how to do

something new, the gradual release of responsibility model (Pearson and

Gallagher 1983) comes into play. Maybe you learned how to snowboard,

canoe, play golf, or drive a car. If you watched somebody do it first, prac-

ticed under that person’s watchful eye, listened to his or her feedback, and

then one fine day went off and did it by yourself, adding your own special

twist to it in the process, you know what this model is all about.

Pearson and Gallagher use a model of explicit reading instruction

using these four stages that guide children toward independence:

1. Teacher modeling and explanation of a strategy.

2. Guided practice, where teachers gradually give students more respon-

sibility for task completion.

3. Independent practice accompanied by feedback.

4. Application of the strategy in real reading situations.

The table “Components of the Workshop” shows how the readers’

workshop provides the framework for teaching comprehension strategies

within the context of the gradual release of responsibility instructional

model.

Teacher modeling, or showing kids how, includes explaining the strat-

egy, thinking aloud about the mental processes used to construct meaning,

and demonstrating when and why it is most effective. Thinking aloud

about what’s going on inside our heads as we read allows us to make the

invisible visible and the implicit explicit.

Guided practice, or what I like to call “having at it” (it is also some-

times called scaffolding) consists of gradually giving children more responsi-

bility for using each strategy in a variety of authentic situations. Here, chil-

Reading with Meaning

dren are invited to practice a strategy during whole-class discussions, asked

to apply it in collaboration with their peers in pairs and small groups, and

supported by honest feedback that honors both the child and the task.

During independent practice, or the “letting go” stage, children begin

to apply the strategy in their own reading, ideally using real texts in real

reading situations. Teacher feedback through conferences is essential; teach-

ers need to let children know when they’ve used a strategy correctly,

encourage them to share their thinking with the teacher and their peers,

challenge them to think out loud about how using the strategy helped them

as a reader, and correct misconceptions when they occur.

Application of the strategy, or the “Now I get it!” stage, is evident when

children apply their learning independently to different types of text or in

other curricular areas. By this stage, children are more flexible in their

thinking: they begin to make connections between this strategy and others;

they can articulate how using a strategy helps construct meaning; and they

can use strategies flexibly and adaptively when they read.

So what does all this mean for kids? How can we help them find their

own soft and quiet voices? From my reading of the research, late-night and

after-school conversations with colleagues, and years of personal experience

Chapter 1: Guiding Principles

Components of the Workshop

Phases of Gradual

Release

Modeling reading

behavior

Thinking aloud

(showing how)

Guided practice

(having at it)

Independent practice

(letting go)

Application on their

own (now I get it!)

Time to Teach

15–20 Minutes

Read-aloud, Mini-lesson

Whole Group

✘

✗

Time to Practice

45–50 Minutes

Reading, Conferring

Small Group, Pairs,

Independent

✗

✘

Time to Share

15–20 Minutes

Reflection, Sharing

Whole Group, Small Group,

Pairs

✗

as a reader and a teacher, I’ve come to believe that I’m most successful at

teaching children to be active, thoughtful, proficient readers and thinkers

when I

■ have a deep understanding of the strategy being taught and am aware

of when and how it helps me as a reader.

■ think aloud using high-quality literature and well-written nonfiction.

■ gradually release responsibility for using each strategy.

■ confer with children regularly and offer honest feedback that moves

each child forward based on my knowledge of how proficient readers

use the strategy being taught.

■ use language that is scholarly and precise, creating a common language

for discussing books and ideas both in and out of the classroom.

■ teach each strategy separately and in depth, but show how one strategy

can build on another.

■ teach the reader, not the reading.

■ make thinking public by creating anchor charts that children can

refer to, add to, or change over the course of the year.

■ demonstrate how strategies can be applied to other curricular areas.

■ create an environment where reading is valued and seen as a tool for

gaining new knowledge and rethinking current knowledge.

How do you begin to plan for a six- to eight-week in-depth compre-

hension study using the gradual release of responsibility model? First, think

big picture. What’s your working definition of the strategy you’ll be teach-

ing? When do you use it? How does it help you? What do you think is key

for kids to know? Next, consider how you will define this strategy. What do

you want to say, and how will you say it? Remember, this is a working defi-

nition, meant to get you and your students started. It doesn’t have to be all-

encompassing or perfect—the children will help you with that!

Think, too, about what you believe is key to the strategy you’ll be

teaching. Break it down. What is it that you believe is most important for

kids to learn? This book can help you with that, but don’t leave all the

thinking to me! You’ll come up with different understandings that are

equally important.

Once you know what you want to teach, think about how you will

teach it. What books will you use to model your use of the strategy and the

points you want to make? How will you gradually release responsibility to

your students? How will you know if they are getting it? For this kind of

big-picture, long-term planning, I use a form (shown on the next page) to

Reading with Meaning

help me think about where I want my students to go and how I hope to get

them there.

I know it’s difficult just to think about planning a six- to eight-week

course of study—in fact, I used to think it was counterproductive. After all,

how could I possibly know where we’d be eight weeks from now? But this

isn’t about the day-to-day planning—that still needs to be done. Rather,

this “big picture” planning is about creating a well-thought-out, overall plan

that guides my work and gives direction to my day-to-day planning.

There’s nothing worse than walking into school each morning having

to figure out what to teach, scramble for a book, come up with a plan.

When we get caught in that trap, our teaching becomes disconnected, just

a series of lessons rather than a coherent plan for learning.

Chapter 1: Guiding Principles

Strategy Instruction Using the Gradual Release Model

Strategy

Time frame

High Teacher Shared Child

Low

Responsibility

✗

High Teacher Shared Child

Low

Responsibility

✗✗

High Teacher Shared Child

Low

Responsibility

✗

Modeling and thinking aloud

Shared experiences and guided practice

Independent practice

Do I ever deviate from the big picture? Absolutely. I never know when

a child or a colleague will cause me to think about things in new ways, lead

me in new directions, and redefine my old thinking. As David Pearson said,

“Good planning, like good instruction, is as intentional as it is adaptable”

(Pearson, personal interview, 1995).

Reading with Meaning

September

Frankie’s response to the

question “What do we

know about books?”

Sharing a snack is

the perfect time for

practicing good manners

and the civility of

conversation.

t’s late afternoon. The children have gone for the day, and save for a

lone cricket chirping from his bug box in a faraway corner, the room is

quiet. It’s the second week of school, and despite vows that this year it’s

going to be different, that this year there really will be balance in my life,

I’m already feeling overwhelmed and out of sync. And instead of being

smart and heading out for the gym, or even staying to get ready for

Wednesday’s Back to School Night, score the district’s newest assessment,

or check my voice mail for the messages I know await me, I find myself

watching the sunlight as it streams in through the windows.

My eye catches a stack of letters peeking out from under a pile of

books. Realizing they’re the ones I’d asked parents to write, and mortified

I’d forgotten them in the rush of the first week, I sink (or is it slink?) into

the once-white overstuffed chair in the corner and begin to read.

I’d invited parents to take a few moments to write me about their chil-

dren, asking them to think about things that might be important for me to

know as well as their hopes and expectations for the coming year. As I read,

I learn that this year’s children are animal lovers, Irish step dancers, Kenny

Loggins enthusiasts, pianists, creative artists, Lego-maniacs, gymnasts, soc-

cer players, geniuses, and budding geniuses. They are dubbed silly, smart,

sweet, caring, serious, mature, young, sensitive, gregarious, shy, confident,

playful, and imaginative.

Matthew’s parents write that from the day he was born, he had a

sparkle in his eye, and now they do, too. They say that “more than any-

thing, Matt would love to read.” Caitlin’s family tells me they waited ten

years for her and that she is “the light of our lives.” And Danny’s parents

write, “we moved into the neighborhood because our dearest wish was for

you to be his first-grade teacher.” (Yikes!)

As I read the letters from the parents, I’m struck by the love between

the lines, the hopes and dreams that live in their words, and the faith and

trust they have in me. No one wrote that they wanted their child to score

high on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, or attain Level 20 by the end of first

grade, or even meet the highly publicized state standards. It’s not that they

don’t want those things for their children, but the things they chose to write

me about—the things they considered most important for me to know—

were not about test scores, reading levels, or state standards.

I remind myself that in the incessant push for higher test scores, and

in the face of endless editorials about the demise of public schools and mis-

guided politicians and their plans for reform, I must not let myself—or my

budding geniuses—get caught up in some kind of frenzied, frantic pace

that knows no end. I remind myself not to let go of what I know is best for

Reading with Meaning

kids. For me, September is all about building relationships, establishing

trust, creating working literate environments, and getting to know children

as readers and learners—and remembering that our classrooms still need to

be joyful places where we take the time to appreciate Matthew’s sparkling

eye, Isabella’s shy poetic spirit, and Kendal’s boundless energy.

Community: Creating a Culture and

Climate for Thinking

If you had asked me about the importance of creating a sense of commu-

nity in my classroom ten years ago, I’d have said it was everything. I’d have

talked about the interviews and surveys we do at the beginning of the year,

the self-portraits taped above the chalkboard, the photographs everywhere

of children playing and working together. I’d have told you about Talent

Show Tuesdays, about writing and signing “Our Promise to Each Other,”

and about the children’s work that hangs not only on the boards and doors

but also from the wires that crisscross our room. I’d have told you about the

cozy spaces where children work in small groups, pairs, and independently,

and about rituals for birthdays, losing a tooth, and saying good-bye. And

finally, I’d have mentioned that each day begins with our singing “Oh,

What a Beautiful Morning” with Joanie Bartels, and ends with an a cap-

pella version of “Happy Trails to You” written by cowgirl Dale Evans.

And if you asked me about the importance of creating community

today? I’d still say it’s everything. But now I know that once the promises

are written and signed, the room beautifully and thoughtfully arranged,

and the photographs taken, developed, and sitting prettily in a frame, our

work has just begun. Real classroom communities are more than just a

look. Real communities flourish when we bring together the voices, hearts,

and souls of the people who inhabit them.

When our vision of community expands to create a culture and cli-

mate for thinking (Perkins 1993)—when rigor, inquiry, and intimacy

become key components of our definition—it’s essential that we work first

to build genuine relationships, establish mutual trust, and create working

literate environments. If we look to the months ahead and envision chil-

dren constructing meaning by spontaneously engaging in thoughtful con-

versation about books and ideas, asking questions that matter to them and

exploring their solutions, and responding independently to a variety of text

in meaningful ways, we must be deliberate in September.

Chapter 2: In September

Building Relationships

I begin by paying attention to the little things. It’s noticing Paige’s cool new

haircut, Grant’s oversized Avalanche jersey, Kendal’s sparkly blue nail pol-

ish, and Cody’s washable tattoos. It’s asking about Palmer’s soccer game,

Jane’s dance recital, Elizabeth’s visiting grandpa, and Hannah’s brand-new

baby brother.

It’s giving Ailey a heart rock to add to her collection, copying a poem

about cats and giving it to Gina because I know she loves them, and even

putting a Band-Aid on Grace’s tiny paper cut. Showing children we care

about them and love being their teacher is an important first message. And

at the same time, I’m modeling for children how to show someone you care

about them; I’m modeling how you go about creating lasting friendships.

Teaching children how to listen and respond to each other in respect-

ful, thoughtful ways also helps foster new relationships and caring commu-

nities. I used to have long conversations with children about this, telling

them how important it was to listen carefully to each other and to really

think about what their classmates have to say. I’d talk about responding

respectfully, to look at the person you’re speaking to, call them by name,

and on and on. But the very next day a child might groan at a song another

had chosen, wildly wave a hand when someone else was talking, or flip

through the pages of a book while another child was sharing. And I’d go

into the whole respect routine again. During these conversations, the chil-

dren were just as eloquent. They sounded just like me! But their behavior

didn’t change. And I’d wonder, “What’s going on here? Why don’t they get

it?” And even sometimes, “What’s wrong with these kids, anyway?”

Eventually I realized, of course, that nothing was wrong with “these

kids.” They didn’t get it because I hadn’t shown them how. I’d told them to

be respectful, thoughtful, and kind, but I hadn’t shown them what that

looks and sounds like.

The best opportunities to show kids how occur in the moment. When

Frankie says to Colleen, “Colleen, could you please speak up? I can’t hear

what you have to say,” I can’t let that pass without making sure everyone

heard. I can’t let that pass without pointing out how smart it is to want to

hear what someone has to say. I say, “You guys, did you just hear Frankie?

Frankie, could you say that again?” She does, and I ask, “So boys and girls,

why was that such a smart thing for Frankie to do?” They respond, and

then I use their words and mine to bring our thoughts together.

And when Max tells Jack that his idea is “a little bit dumb,” I can’t let

that pass either. I say, “Max, I’m sure you didn’t mean to be rude to Jack,

Reading with Meaning

but when you said his idea was a ‘little bit dumb,’ that’s what you were

being. It’s okay to disagree with someone, but there are nicer, more polite

ways to do it. You might say something like, ‘Jack, I don’t understand what

you mean’ or ‘Jack, why do you think that?’ Try it again, Max.” He does,

beautifully this time, and I don’t miss the opportunity to let everyone know

how much we’ve learned from Max today.

Or Sean is trying to find a place in the circle, and he starts nudging

himself into a spot four inches wide. I say, “Sean, could you think of a bet-

ter way to get yourself into the circle?” Sean’s stumped. “Well, how about

this? The next time you need to be in the circle and there isn’t room, how

about asking someone to scoot back so you can fit in? Let’s try it right now.

Just say, ‘Sunny, could you please scoot back so I can fit in the circle?’” He

does. Next, I turn my attention to Sunny. “Okay, Sunny, Sean has asked

you nicely to scoot back. What could you say back to him?” She says, “Sure,

Sean, I’ll scoot back for you.” With smiles all around, she does.

Is the first time the charm? No. And probably not the third time

either. But remain diligent. Remain calm. Don’t give up the good fight!

Once the flagrant violations are in check, watch closely for the rolling of

eyes, the private conversations, the exasperated sighs. Don’t let those go by

either.

You can use these first lessons—we can call them “anchor lessons”—to

refer back to. For example, when Sarah snaps at Troy, I say, “Oops, Sarah,

what’s another way you could tell Troy what you’re thinking? Think back to

how Max handled something like this.” We’ll assist her if she needs it, but a

gentle reminder is usually enough.

Here are a few more teachable moments.

To the children with the wildly waving hand when someone is talking:

“You know what, guys? I know you’re not meaning to be rude, but when

your hand is up and someone else is talking, I’m thinking you’re probably

focusing on what you’re going to say rather than listening to the person

who is speaking. What do you think? Since we can learn so much from each

other, remember to keep your hands down and really listen and think about

what your friends are saying. When they’re finished, you can share what

you’re thinking.”

To the children who abruptly get up in the middle of a story or discussion:

“Oh my goodness, you’re going to leave us now? Think of the learning

you’ll miss! Can you wait until the story [or discussion] is over? Thanks.”

To the children who always have something to say, no matter the topic or

the day, and the ones who hardly have anything to say, ever: “Today I want you

to think about yourselves as listeners and speakers. If you’re someone who’s

Chapter 2: In September

great at talking a lot, I want you to be a listener today. See what you can

learn. If you’re someone who is a great listener, I want you to do some talk-

ing today. We want to know what you are thinking, too. Raise your hand if

you think you do a lot of listening. Raise your hand if you think you do a

lot of talking. Wow! You really know yourselves. That’s so smart. Let’s try

it.”

To those who have already heard every book in your library and can’t wait

to let you know the minute you hold it up: “That’s so great you’ve heard this

book before. And you know what? Since we know how much more we can

learn and understand when we reread, I want you to pay special attention

when you hear the story today. Think about what you notice this time that

you didn’t notice before. Think about what puzzled you the first time, and

what you think about that this time. Will you let us know?”

Doesn’t all this take a lot of time? You bet. But it sets the tone for

learning and thoughtful conversation; it paves the way for the work that lies

ahead. Once children realize you’re not going to relent, once they realize

that this is not just a “sometime thing,” and once they understand what you

want them to do and why it’s important, it becomes habit. It becomes part

of the language of the classroom.

Establishing Mutual Trust

Like building relationships, establishing trust takes time. And it must begin

with me, the teacher. Every time I value a child’s idea by acting on it, think

out loud to make sense of a question or response because I really want to

understand, or ask children what they think and then listen carefully, I let

them know I respect their thinking and trust that they have something

smart to say.

I don’t mean in a superficial “they’re only seven” kind of way; I mean

trusting children enough to give them the time and the tools to think for

themselves, to pose and solve problems, and to make informed decisions

about their learning. Respecting their ideas, opinions, and decisions doesn’t

mean carte blanche acceptance, but it does mean giving their voices sincere

consideration. Trust needs to be mutual. If we’re asking children to

thoughtfully consider the thinking of others, we must expect no less from

ourselves.

It was Lauren who made me a believer. It was early in her first-grade

year, and she’d been happily reading books like Whose Mouse Are You? by

Reading with Meaning

Robert Kraus and Cookie’s Week by Cindy Ward. But the day I read aloud

Mary Hoffman’s Amazing Grace, things changed. She had to have that

book. I gave her my usual line: “You know, Lauren, I’m thinking this book

is too challenging for you right now. How about waiting awhile, then giv-

ing it a try? You can keep it safe in your cubby until then. Let’s find Where

Are You Going, Little Mouse? I think that would be perfect for you.” But

she’d have none of the mouse. It was Amazing Grace she wanted.

In the end, she won me over. But once I’d said yes, I couldn’t just give

her the book and say, “You go, girl.” Once I’d relented, I needed to do

everything I could to help make her decision—now ours—a good one. I

had to figure how best to support her and maximize her chances for success.

This wasn’t about power or proving a point; this was about helping a little

girl learn to trust herself and make good decisions about her learning.

We made a plan together: I’d help her learn a page a day at school,

she’d reread what she’d learned already, and she’d take the book home every

night to practice. Five weeks later, the kids and I were calling her Amazing

Lauren! And she was amazing. Not only was she able to read Amazing

Grace, but she was off and running, reading books like Oliver Button Is a

Sissy by Tomie dePaola, Wild Wild Wolves by Joyce Milton, The Paper Bag

Princess by Robert Munsch, and Honey, I Love by Eloise Greenfield.

What if I’d said no? Would she have learned to read Oliver Button,

Honey, I Love, and the others? Probably. But I want to do more than teach

kids how to read. I want to teach them how to go after something if they

really want it, I want to teach them the rewards of hard work and determi-

nation, and I want to teach them that if they’re sincere, I’ll do everything I

can to support them.

If we expect big things from children, we must expect big things from

ourselves, too. For years I’d been told what to do in my classroom and how

to do it. Glossy teacher’s guides with smiling children on the cover even

told me what to say. I didn’t always read the words in italics exactly as writ-

ten (I considered myself a rebel even then), but I’d get the gist of the lesson

from the guides. Beyond running off worksheets and making cute activities

for centers, I never had to think much about reading at all. Come to think

of it, the kids didn’t either.

So when PEBC staff developer Steph Harvey blazed into my room

with a whole new way of thinking about children, learning, and teaching,

she made my head hurt. Every other week she’d come, lugging a tote bag so

full of books they left a trail behind her like Hansel’s crumbs of bread. She’d

do a fabulous demonstration lesson, we’d debrief over lunch, and then off

she’d go. “Wait!” I’d plead. “Can’t you leave me with a bit more of a plan

Chapter 2: In September

until you come back?” Just like my teacher’s manual, I wanted her to tell me

where to go next; I thought she knew more about my kids than I did.

But Steph was wise. She wouldn’t hand over any prescribed set of

mini-lessons. Instead, she’d say, “Come on, Deb. Think about what you

already know about good teaching. You know your kids. Where do you

think they need to go next?” Her best advice? “Trust yourself.”

Only when I began to assume responsibility for the teaching, learning,

and thinking in my classroom did I understand that I really did know my

kids, what they needed, and where they needed to go next. Only then did I

begin to believe I was smart enough to figure this stuff out for myself. I’d

had support from Steph, yes, but she’d made it clear the decisions were

mine to make. She’d trusted me before I’d known to trust myself.

And because she did, I wanted to live up to her expectations; I wanted

to be as good as she thought I was.

Actually, I wanted to be even better. I began to read more professional

books and articles, to join study groups, and to observe other teachers. I

worked long hours defining my beliefs and aligning my classroom practices;

I came to know the supporting research. I learned to believe in myself.

So what are the implications for the children in our classrooms?

They’re huge. When we show children we expect them to share thought-

fully in the responsibility for their learning, when we let them know we

believe they’re smart, and when we support them just enough so that they’ll

be successful, we’re doing for them what Steph did for me. We’re trusting

them first so that they can learn to trust themselves.

In my role as staff developer, teachers and others often observe our

readers’ and writers’ workshops. Invariably, someone will come up and

whisper, “You know, they really are talking about the book back in the cor-

ner over there.” (They think I’m going to be surprised.) Or they’ll wonder,

“So how do you know what your kids are doing if you don’t meet with each

one every day?” and “You mean they can just go up to the library all by

themselves?” I tell them what I’ve already told you; later we talk about get-

ting started.

Start small. Think about the things in your classroom that you do

automatically, without even thinking why. Ask yourself, “What am I doing

now that I could trust kids to do?” and “In what ways could I trust children

where I haven’t before?” Think about things like . . .

Do they really need to go to the bathroom and get a drink all at the

same time, or could children take care of those things on an individual

basis? Do I need to count and monitor the number of pretzels or animal

crackers they take for snack, or can I trust them to take two or three? Am I

Reading with Meaning

the only one capable of refilling the staplers and tape dispensers, and replac-

ing sticky notes, worn-out markers, and paper towels? Do I really need

elaborate and time-consuming check-out systems for books, CDs, markers,

videotapes, calculators, or whatever else children may want or need at

home? I say no. Not when we’re clear about what we expect and why. Not

when we trust kids enough to show them how.

Chapter 2: In September

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Readers’

Workshop:

Real Reading

from the Start

Torin and Jack work

together to sound out

words.

Real literature by real

authors engages young

readers.

he voice of Joanie Bartels singing “Oh, What a Beautiful Morning” is

the signal for children to finish selecting their books and gather in the

meeting area. By the last “I’ve got a beautiful feeling, everything’s

going my way,” everyone’s singing along with Joanie. Readers’ workshop in

first grade is in full swing. We’ve been at it for almost three weeks now, and

children have learned how to select their books for the day, how to gather for

a story and mini-lesson, how to practice reading behaviors in authentic situa-

tions using real books, how to use workshop procedures, and how to share

with their classmates what they’ve learned about themselves as readers.

“Hold the phone,” you might be thinking. “How could they learn all

that in just three weeks?” or “How can you have a readers’ workshop when

they can’t even read?” Hang on. The fact is, most children haven’t learned to

decode or comprehend. Not yet. And still, they see themselves and their

classmates as readers. They clearly look the part, and right now, that’s pre-

cisely the point.

Readers’ workshop in September is less about teaching children how

to read and more about modeling and teaching children what it is that good

readers do, setting the tone for the workshop and establishing its expecta-

tions and procedures, and engaging and motivating children to want to

learn to read. Once these are in place, we can move forward quickly with-

out the distraction of management, procedural, and behavioral issues.

Rigorous environments do not have to be rigid or restrictive. I know

we have mandates, time lines, and important tests to give. And still I say

slow down! Learning to read should be a joyful experience. Give children

the luxury of listening to well-written stories with interesting plots, singing

songs and playing with their words, and exploring a wide variety of fiction,

nonfiction, poetry, and rhymes. Let them know when they say or do some-

thing smart; give them credit and ask them to share. Help children access

what they already know and figure out how to help them make connections

to something new. Be genuine. Laugh. Love. Be patient. You’re creating a

community of readers and thinkers; you’re building relationships and estab-

lishing trust. Come October, you’ll be glad you did.

Book Selection: In the Beginning

Remember the red baskets of books sitting atop children’s tables I mentioned

earlier? For the first two or three weeks of school, children select their books

each day from these. I include a variety of books in the baskets, mostly the

Reading with Meaning

songbooks we’ve been learning, but also familiar fairy tales, ABC books, a

few picture books, poetry, and well-illustrated nonfiction. I add new song-

books to the baskets as we learn them, favorite read-alouds, and sometimes

enlarged, photocopied, laminated copies of poems, songs, snippets of text,

or rhymes children especially love. Each basket (ours are the 12-by-18-inch

plastic ones) holds around twenty-five books and serves four to six children.

In September, the books and materials I’ve chosen are most likely not

at the children’s instructional level; whether a child can or cannot read them

doesn’t matter right now. I’ve chosen them because the familiar songs and

story lines, the short text, and the colorful illustrations are perfect for chil-

dren’s working with books, practicing reading behaviors, becoming engaged

and motivated, and building community.

When children arrive each morning, they select three or four books

from the basket at their table, place them at their seats, chat a bit with their

friends, and begin reading. In a couple of weeks, children may choose to sit

almost anywhere in the room, but in the beginning, when we’re establishing

procedures, reading behaviors, and the tone of the workshop, they sit at the

tables. I use this time to say hello, have brief conversations with the children

about what’s going on in their lives, and offer reassuring words to the few par-

ents who still have a hard time saying good-bye. I also do some noticing (love

those bright red sneakers!) and check to see if anyone needs help with book

selection. After most of the children have arrived, I put on the music and chil-

dren gather in the meeting area for the day’s read-aloud and mini-lesson.

The tone for the beginning of the school day has a relaxed, social, “I’m

glad you’re here” sort of feel. It’s very similar to the way I begin my own

day; I can’t imagine walking into the building, striding down the long hall

to my room, unlocking my door, and immediately creating a chart or

reviewing the day’s lessons. First I need to feel connected in some way to the

people I work with, whether it’s asking Sue about her new baby girl, talking

with Barb about the class we teach together, or stopping in to check out

Michelle’s tadpoles and chatting about why hers are again twice the size of

mine. I need to take the time to light a candle, put on a little Eric Clapton

or Keb Mo, and ease myself into the day.

Reading Aloud

My first read-aloud is almost always a songbook. I introduce a new song-

book each day, I have two or three favorites ready to go, then I ask for

Chapter 3: Readers’ Workshop

requests. Most days we end up singing six or seven—children love the pre-

dictable text, rhythm, and rhyme. This continues well into October, and

while we might “graduate” from Five Little Ducks by Raffi and Oh, a

Hunting We Will Go by John Langstaff, we begin the day with music all year

long. Often I’ll type up the words to favorite songs from CDs, tapes, books,

and my Girl Scout days. The children follow along, and once they know the

words, laminated copies go into the baskets and plain copies are sent home.

In addition to their repetition, rhythm, and rhyme, my reasons for

choosing songbooks and singing songs are many:

■ They’re fun!

■ Children are instantly engaged and motivated to learn to read the

words. I have multiple copies, and children can’t wait to get their

hands on them.

■ The words and tunes are easy to learn; children read along right away

and feel part of the “reading club” almost immediately.

■ They build community. Where else would “Little Rabbit Foo Foo” be

declared “our song”?

■ Children love to take them home to share with parents, brothers, and

sisters. I send a note with the copies, telling parents the purpose of

the songbooks, ways to support their early reader, and reassurances

that yes, right now, pointing to words and memorizing are good

things! Parents appreciate being connected to the classroom so early

in the year, and sometimes respond by sending in words to songs

they learned as kids.

■ Repeated readings increase phonemic awareness and build sight word

vocabularies.

Once we’ve warmed up with songbooks, I read aloud one or two other

types of books, depending on their length and the children’s mood.

Sometimes I’ll read one of the books out of the baskets at the children’s

tables; I try to vary genre, author, format, and style and think about books

this particular group of kids can easily connect with or what might pique

their interest.

Reading aloud comes into play throughout the day. After lunch

and/or at the end of the day, I often read aloud from a chapter book.

Perennial favorites include The Trumpet of the Swan by E. B. White, Mr.

Popper’s Penguins by Richard and Florence Atwater, Pippi Longstocking by

Astrid Lindgren, Poppy and Poppy and Rye by Avi, and the My Father the

Dragon series by Ruth Stiles Gannet.

Reading with Meaning

Reading aloud is one of the most important things I do. I can’t believe

I used to feel so guilty about it that I’d shut the classroom door! Now I

know reading aloud motivates kids to want to learn to read, extends their

oral language, and gives them opportunities to connect new information to

what they already know. And reading aloud offers teachers opportunities to

■ share a variety of genres.

■ model fluency and reading behaviors.

■ construct meaning through think-alouds and offer children the time

and tools to do the same.

■ build community.

■ share with kids our love of reading and learning.

Mini-Lessons

At the beginning of the school year mini-lessons focus primarily on model-

ing and identifying reading behaviors and teaching and learning the expec-

tations and procedures of the workshop. Reading behaviors are the observ-

able things that readers do—the deliberate actions we take that connect us

to our lives as readers. Think of them as the habits we keep, like keeping a

running list of books we want to read, recommending books to friends, par-

ticipating in book groups, or even bookmarking our places with a paper

clip or rubber band. If we want children to develop habits that readers keep,

we must heighten their awareness by explicitly modeling and pointing out

what it is that readers do and giving them time to practice these behaviors

in authentic situations using real books. Focusing first on what readers do

prepares children for learning how they do it.

A first lesson on reading behaviors could begin this way: “Boys and

girls, from talking with you and reading letters from your parents, I’ve

learned that this is a class that wants to learn all about reading. Is that true?

It is? Well, guess what—I love to teach kids all about reading, so this is

going to be perfect! I’m thinking that you guys are like a lot of other kids I

know: I’m thinking that you know a lot of things about reading already. Let

me show you what I mean. Think about somebody you know who loves to

read. Can you get a picture of that person in your head? Good. Now, this

person you know who loves to read, what do you see him or her doing?

What do you know about this person as a reader?”

Children respond:

Chapter 3: Readers’ Workshop

“They have book clubs; my mom’s in one with Oprah!”

“They go to the library all the time and check out a ton of books.”

“They read lots of different stuff, like my dad. He reads newspapers

and books and magazines and papers from his work.”

“They read a lot.”

“Listen to you!” I tell them. “You do know a lot about what readers do!

I’ll record your words on sentence strips like this one, and then I’ll tape

them on the door there. That way we won’t forget. Over the next couple of

days, let’s do some investigating—let’s watch carefully for people who are

readers and notice what else they do. Let’s see how many more things we

can add to our list.”

At the end of the week, the door is covered. Children and I observed

readers

“talking about books and ideas.”

“recommending books to each other.”

“asking questions about the stories.”

“reading with friends.”

“trading books with each other.”

“pointing to the words as they read.”

“rereading books.”

“buying books.”

“sounding out words.”

“laughing, crying, smiling, frowning.”

“reading out loud.”

“using a bookmark.”

“finishing one book and starting another one.”

“writing on Post-its and sticking them in the book.”

“looking at the pictures and reading the little words under them.”

“reading really fast.”

“reading slowly.”

“looking up a word in the dictionary.”

Children also started paying attention to where readers read, and they

insisted on recording this information, too (on another door). So, where do

readers read?

In bed

Under a tree

Reading with Meaning

On the porch

Up in a tree house

Under the covers

In school

At a soccer game

In a bubble bath

On an airplane

In the bookstore

At the checkout stand

In the car

Waiting in line

On the couch, and

In a big red chair!

(I think we have the makings of a poem here!)

From the first lesson on, I model and children begin practicing the

things that readers do, and we talk about the reasons why. For example, one

day we might begin a series of lessons on what readers do when they finish

reading a book. From discussion and our class-generated list, we learn that

they might reread the book, choose another one, talk about their book with

a friend, or read it with a buddy. We also speculate (and soon find out first-

hand) why we might do each of these things. For example, we might choose

to reread to better understand the story, get better at reading the words, get

ready for a book group, or maybe just because we love the book.

Because the list of reading behaviors is long, I choose the most impor-

tant behaviors—that is, the ones I think are most important for beginning

readers to practice early on. I put my energy, and theirs, into those.

What’s my purpose here? Why spend time modeling and practicing

reading behaviors? I’ve learned that doing these things

■ sets the tone for creating a working literate environment.

■ lets children know that they share in the responsibility for their

learning.

■ builds community—together we investigate, learn, and practice what

it is that readers do.

■ offers kids opportunities to make informed choices about their learning.

■ fosters independence.

■ actively engages readers early on and builds confidence.

■ sends the message, “You are smart, I know you can do this, I’ll show

you how.”

Chapter 3: Readers’ Workshop

Mini-lessons this early in the year also establish workshop (and class-

room) procedures. I begin by asking myself just two questions: What are

the things that consistently interfere with teaching and learning? and What

procedures can be put in place to lessen or eliminate their impact?

What drives me crazy? It’s the grinding of the pencil sharpener when

children are working, the plaintive voices asking to get a drink or go to the

bathroom, children lining up or calling out to ask how to read or spell a

word. It’s being interrupted during a conference with a child or a conversa-

tion with an adult, transition times that take too long, children telling me,

“I’m done,” or asking, “What do I do now?” It’s kids’ abandoning books

without making the effort to have a go, my asking for their attention over

and over, and announcements over the intercom about candy sales,

Brownie meetings, and the band.

What keeps me sane? If the problem can be solved in the classroom, I

quickly initiate conversations and/or mini-lessons about what it is that’s

interfering with teaching and learning, why it’s a problem, and how we

might solve it.

A procedural mini-lesson might begin this way: “You know, yesterday

I was conferring with Cody, and all of a sudden we heard the loud, grinding

sound of the pencil sharpener. Do you know the sound I mean?” Their

nods and big eyes tell me they do. “It seemed to go on forever, and Cody

and I couldn’t focus on our work. We couldn’t even remember what we

were talking and thinking about. Right, Cody? And I’m wondering, did the

pencil sharpener interfere with anyone else’s learning?” Tales of woe follow.

“I have an idea that might help us—let me know what you think

about this. See these two cans? One is labeled ‘I’m sharp!’; the other is

labeled ‘Please sharpen me.’” If your pencil lead breaks or it gets dull from

so much writing, put it in this can labeled ‘Please sharpen me.’ Then, just

take a sharpened pencil from this one, the ‘I’m sharp!’ can, and keep work-

ing. What do you think?” Everyone thinks it’s a very smart idea.

Another day during reading, two children behind me keep repeating

my name, another is softly tapping my shoulder, and one more is doing

something with my hair. I turn and face them. “Hey, you guys, I’d love to

talk with you, but I’m in the middle of a conference. Please find a place to

read quietly, and right before we share we’ll talk about other ways for you to

let me know you need me when I’m working with someone else. Be thinking

about what might work.” Then, during the “How’s it going?” part of the

share, I say, “Girls and boys, before we begin sharing, there’s something we

need to talk and think about. I know there are times during reading when

you really need to talk to me and I’m busy conferring with someone else. I

Reading with Meaning

do want to help you, but I can’t just stop in the middle of a conference.

What do you think we could do to make this better? Take a couple of min-

utes to talk with those next to you and see what you can come up with.”

Jake and Olivia propose that “if there’s something that only Mrs.

Miller can help you with, you could write her a little note and stick it on

the dry erase board. Then keep on reading until she comes to you; don’t

just, well, you know, sit there.” Olivia reminds everyone to “sign your

name.” After the initial flurry of messages, we agree: it’s a hit.

Why not just post a list of rules on the first day of school and be done?

I remember those days, but that was when the room was mine, not ours;

that was when I was the only teacher, and they were the only learners; and

that was when I asked all the questions, and had all the answers, too.

Reading and Conferring

Before sending children off to read, I’m explicit about what I want them to

do, how they can go about doing it, and why it’s important. I want them to

begin this part of the workshop with a clear sense of purpose; I want them

to be thinking, “I get it. Now let me have at it!” So how do kids “have at it”

when most are not yet reading? Reading books and working with books are

two different things. Although learning to read and comprehend books is

our goal, working with books helps get us there and introduces children to

the real world of reading.

Let’s say the mini-lesson had been on using sticky notes to mark the

places in your book where you learned something about yourself as a reader.

Before sending the children off, I’d say, “In your reading today, if you find

yourself thinking, ‘Hmmm. I just learned something about myself as a

reader today—I figured out the words space and suit by looking at the pic-

ture,’ remember to mark that page with a sticky note, just the way I showed

you. That way, you can keep track of your learning and thinking, and if you

share, you’ll know the exact page to open your book to. Got it? Good.

Think, too, about why marking your learning and thinking is an important

thing for readers to do. Let’s talk later about what you discovered during the

share. Happy reading!”

I know that not all children will keep track of their learning and think-

ing by marking the text with sticky notes today, but some will. The enthu-

siasm and excitement generated by even one or two children as they model

and share how it helped them as readers and learners are contagious.

Chapter 3: Readers’ Workshop

Okay. Let’s say you agree with the importance of reading aloud, and

you’re comfortable with mini-lessons. But sending kids off to read and work

with books so early in the year? What would that look like with twenty-seven

first graders? Well . . . It’s Jamie and Grace singing “Five Little Ducks” over in

a corner while Jane’s carefully pointing to the words I’ve copied onto chart

paper and Torin and Palmer are looking at a book about snakes, gleefully

poring over the bulge that has got to be an eaten mouse. It’s Brodie and

Frankie, each signing out a copy of The Lady with the Alligator Purse by

Nadine Bernard Westcott and Chicken Soup with Rice by Maurice Sendak—

they have a play date after school and already they’re making plans to make

Rice Krispies Treats and read in Brodie’s tree house. It’s Sheldon, Cain, and

Conner wandering a bit—how many drinks have they had? Cole’s in a corner

following the tiny black-and-white drawings in Hand Rhymes by Marc Tolon

Brown, trying to manipulate his fingers and read “Two Little Monkeys” at the

same time; Grant’s working at my desk with Touch the Poem by Arnold Adoff,

making a list of every word he knows—already he’s up to seven! Nickie’s just

read It Looked Like Spilt Milk by Charles Green Shaw three times and Twenty-

Four Robbers by Audrey Wood twice, and now she’s searching the basket for a

copy of Little Rabbit Foo Foo by Michael Rosen. It’s Julianna and Jake, gig-

gling and marking their pages with sticky notes every time they figure out a

new word, their books overflowing with the bright yellow flags of their learn-

ing. Troy’s snuggling in that once-white chair leafing through Dr. Seuss’s

ABC’s, singing the alphabet song to no one in particular. And at one table,

Jamie’s reading all about Henry and his big dog, Mudge; it looks like Colin’s

coloring circles on sticky notes and putting them in his book, Gemstones by

Ann Squire; and Colleen has spread out three different versions of The Three

Little Pigs, comparing illustrations and story lines.

What am I doing in the midst of all this? I’m conferring with children,

taking notes, and learning as much as I can about them as readers. I’m

intrigued by Colin: what’s with all the colored circles on his slips, and what

has this very social little boy so engaged?

“Hey,” I say, sliding up a chair. “Colin, it looks like you’re really into

that book. Can you talk with me about it?”

“Well, I think it’s a really good learning book for me.”

“What do you mean, a really good learning book?”

“Well, I always like to learn new stuff, and I like rocks and this book

gets me to know more stuff about ’em.”

“Like . . .”

“Well, you see here on this page—” he finds the slip on which he’s

drawn a red circle, “see, on this page, it’s all about rubies. Red, red rubies.”

“That’s so smart. How did you know this page was all about rubies?”

Reading with Meaning

“See?” He points to each letter. “R-U-B-Y, that says ruby. And here’s a

picture of a ruby. It’s red. And here it says red, see, R-E-D.”

“Ruby, that’s kind of a tricky word. How did you figure it out?”

“It’s not tricky! It’s my grandma’s name!”

“That’s funny! Do you see any other words on this page that you

know?”

Colin squints. “Let’s see. Um, there’s the, and see, and oh! There’s ruby

again!” More squinting. “That’s all for today.”

“Good reading, Colin. Thank you. You know what else? I’m so inter-

ested in all your sticky notes with the colored circles. How does that work?”

Deep breath. “Okay. So say I want to learn about rubies, I just put my

finger right in front of the sticky note and open it up. See? And here’s where

the blue rocks are, and the purple ones, and the green ones. Get it?”

“I do get it! That’s so smart to mark your place that way. I’m thinking

that would be a smart thing to share with everyone. Would you do that?

Share with them what you shared with me?”

“Sure!”

“Thank you for talking with me, Colin. I learned a lot from you

today! See? I wrote it all down here. Look at all you know!”

“What’s it say?”

“It says that you like nonfiction books—they’re the kind that give you

information, like Gemstones. And that you’re confident—that means you

believe in yourself and try new things. Here it says you can work with other

kids, like you did yesterday, and by yourself, too, like today. And here? See these

words? These are the words you read to me. Want to read them again? . . . Good

job! And these words next to the star? I wrote a note to myself to try to find

some other books about precious stones or colored rocks for you; some that

have fewer words on a page. All these things show me how smart you are, and

help me know how I can teach you best. Did I get everything?”

“Did you write that my grandma’s name is Ruby?”

“Oops! I forgot that. I’ll put that right here, next to the words you

know. Before I go, do you need my help with anything?”

“I want to know the names of all the rocks, like the purple ones, the

green ones, all the different colors. Will you teach ’em to me?”

“I’d love to teach them to you! Why don’t you pick two or three right

now? We could make a book that has all the names of the gems you know

during work activity time if you’d like. We could keep adding to it every

time you learn a new one. What do you think?”

Huge grin. “I want to know this purple one.”

“That’s an amethyst.” I write the word under the purple circle on his

sticky note.

Chapter 3: Readers’ Workshop

“And this green one.”

“That’s an emerald.” I write emerald.

“Do we really get to make a book during work activity?”

“We do.”

“Will you write it down in your notebook? With a star?”

“You bet.”

“This is the best day of my life! Hey, Colleen, I get to make a book all

about colored rocks in work activity!”

Colleen raises an eye. “Well, I’ll still be studying The Three Little Pigs.”

“So, Colin,” I say, “what will you do next?”

“I’m just gonna stick with this book, and next I want to read Way

Down South, this one right here.”

“Good plan. Thanks, Colin. Bye.”

“Adios.”

I slide my chair over to Colleen. “Hi, Colleen, what’s going on over

here? . . .”

Sharing

I signal that share time is about to begin by singing, “Everybody listen!”

Children sing back, “Right now!” I ask them to think about what they’ve

learned about themselves as readers today and to think a minute about how

they might best share that with the group. I slip a CD into the player, and

before the final chorus of Rosenshontz’s song “One Earth” children have

arranged themselves in a large circle and are singing along. Some have

books in front of them, indicating they’d like to share.

This part of the workshop has evolved over the years into more than a

time for children to share their learning. It’s that, for sure, but some days it’s

also a forum for exchanging ideas and discussing issues, making connec-

tions from our reading lives to the world, and constructing meaning for

ourselves and each other, one idea at a time.

In September, much of our time is spent setting the tone and estab-

lishing procedures. While I’m interested in what children have to say about

what they’ve learned about themselves as readers, I’m not focusing so much

on the content of what they have to say right now. I’m not worried when

their thinking seems muddled or off the mark—that’s natural. Right now I

want them to practice oral language and the civility of conversation; I want

them to know how it feels to think about their thinking; I want them to

become familiar with the routines and procedures of the share.

Reading with Meaning

Because I know that some of the most significant learning will come

from this part of the workshop, it’s important that I make clear what the

sharing will look and sound like, and why. Once again, I think about what

I want for kids in March, April, and May, and set about getting them there.

I know I want children to be reflective and thoughtful not only about

books and ideas, but also about how they view the world and their place in

it. That’s why we spend the first few minutes of the share reflecting on the

day so far. I ask them to think about questions like “How did reading go for

you today? What’s working well for you?” and “What’s not working so

well?” When a chorus of children answers the first question with, “Good!”

(they always do), I know I’ve got work to do! I’ll say, “Think back. What

was good? What about today was good for you? Can you think out loud

about that?” Then I give them time to formulate their answers. Or maybe

I’ve asked, “Is there anything that didn’t go well today?” and a child

answers, “It was too noisy for me.” In that case, I respond with, “What was

too noisy? How did it get in the way of your learning? Think back and

think out loud about what we could do to make it better tomorrow.”

Children don’t always know that they know something. My modeling,

guiding, and nudging them to think back, think out loud, and take a reflec-

tive, thoughtful stance often show them that they do. Later in the year,

when I ask them, “So how do you know?” or “What makes you think that?”

or “Tell me more about your thinking,” they’ve had practice being reflective

and thoughtful. The time we spend thinking out loud about the day sets

the tone for the rest of the share. Children come to understand that I expect

a respectful, thoughtful, time-to-listen-and-learn-from-each-other frame of

mind.

I model and talk with children about their responsibilities for sharing,

listening, and learning. Every day I remind them, “If you’d like to share,

remember you need to be prepared: bring your book, think about how you

can best share your learning, and speak loudly enough so that everyone can

hear.” I tell the rest of the children, “If you’re the ones who are learning,

you’ll need to be looking at the person speaking, listening carefully, and

thinking about what he or she has to say. Is everybody ready?”

I take a look around the circle and notice those who want to share. I

usually begin with children I’ve conferred with that day, particularly those

who I know have something pertinent to share (most likely this means

something connected to the mini-lesson). I invite children by saying some-

thing like, “Colin, would you like to share?” Colin answers, “Yes, thank

you. The title of my book is Gemstones, and when I was reading today I did

this really cool thing. See all these Post-its? If I want to study about rubies,

I find the red circle—that’s the color rubies are—and I just open it up to

Chapter 3: Readers’ Workshop

this page. If I want to study the purple rock, it’s called a—um, what is it,

Mrs. Miller?”

“It’s called an amethyst.”

“Yeah, amethyst. If I want to study about them, I go to the purple circle

and open up to this page. See? And we’re going to make a book at work activ-

ity and I’m going to learn to read all the names of every one in the book.”

“Colin,” I ask, “can you talk a little about how you’re using the Post-its

to help you as a reader?”

“Um . . . they help me find my place so I don’t have to take forever try-

ing to find stuff?”

“You’ve got it! Thank you, Colin. Boys and girls, what did we learn

from Colin today?” Hands fly.

Jamie, Grace, and Jane each have a copy of Five Little Ducks in front of

them. I invite them to share, and they begin singing.

“Oops!” I say. “What do you need to say back? Let’s start again. Jamie,

Grace, and Jane, would you like to share?”

“Yes, thank you,” they answer together.

“Perfect. Now, tell us about what you’re going to do, and what you

learned about yourselves as readers.”

Grace begins. “Well, we learned all of the words in Five Little Ducks,

and we want to sing for everyone. You can clap, but only at the end.” They

sing, and we clap at the end. After a brief lesson on clapping (how long is

too long?) I ask them, “So, how did you get so good at reading the words?

What did you learn about yourselves as readers?”

Jamie nails it. “We kept practicing and practicing. And we learned

that sometimes it’s fun to learn a book together.”

Grant shares the ten words he already knows from his book today. He

thinks writing them down on sticky notes is a good idea, but he’s not sure

how it will help him as a reader. I’m not sure, either, but Olivia knows.

“Now he’s learning to write the words he can read.” “So what do you think,

Grant? What do you think about what Olivia said?” Grant smiles and gives

a little shrug.

People who visit often say to me, “That’s so cute how they say, ‘Yes,

thank you.’ How did you get them to do that?” Maybe it is cute, but that’s

not why I ask the children to respond that way. It’s about tone, it’s about

respect, and it’s part of the language we use as we live and learn together for

six-and-a-half hours every day. Later in the year, visitors ask, “How do you

get your kids to talk and share their thinking like that? My kids could never

do that.” How did I get them to do that? It’s really pretty simple. I taught

them.

Reading with Meaning

Settling In

Asking children to

think about why they’re

recommending a book to

a friend encourages

thoughtful

recommendations.

Camille chooses to read

(and fingerplay) Marc

Tolon Brown’s Hand

Rhymes during readers’

workshop.

he zucchini is piling up in the teachers’ lounge. Halloween cos-

tumes and giant bags of bite-sized candy bars have replaced wading

pools and charcoal briquettes at the local KMart. And I’m just

about ready to admit that yes, this year’s group has potential! Readers’

workshop has taken on a new look, too. By late September, children under-

stand its procedures and expectations. They know all about what readers

do; now they’re ready to learn how.

Book Selection: Theirs

Because my goal is for children to apply strategies for decoding and con-

structing meaning independently, it now becomes essential that most of

their books be at their instructional level—“just right.” It’s difficult to apply

strategies when you know every word and understand everything; it’s

equally difficult when you know hardly any words and understand very

little. Pulling just any book off the shelf or out of a basket will not do.

Even so, giving children choice is important. I could easily hand each

of them a book or two that I think would be just right, but why? Teaching

children how to make thoughtful book selections is hard work, but it’s not

out of their reach, or ours.

Early mini-lessons on book selection should focus on the ways readers

make good choices. Much of the word on the street has to do with match-

ing kids with books based on such features of text as vocabulary load, sen-

tence length, amount of print on a page, and predictability. I also teach

children to consider

■ the size of the print: Is it too little? Too big? Just right?

■ the words and lines on a page: Are there too many? Too few? Just the

right amount?

■ the pictures: Do they seem like they will help me read the words?

■ repetition: Is a predictable text what I need?

■ the words: Can I read all of them? Most of them? None of them at all?

In my years of teaching children how to make thoughtful and appro-

priate choices, however, I’ve learned there’s more to book selection than

readability. If we mean it when we say we want children to become lifelong

readers, if we mean it when we say we want children to actively engage in

text for a variety of purposes and for increasingly long periods of time, we

Reading with Meaning

can’t teach them to make book selections based on readability alone. If we

really mean it, we also need to teach children to pay attention to

■ Content: What’s my schema for this? What do I know about this

topic or story?

■ Schema: What do I know about myself as a reader and the books in

the classroom to help me make a good choice?

■ Motivation: How hard am I willing to work to learn to read this

book? (Remember Lauren, the mouse, and Amazing Grace?)

■ Variety: Have I selected more than one type of text and level of

difficulty?

Content

We all know kids who have extensive knowledge about a specific topic.

Adam is this year’s dinosaur expert—he’s been passionate about them since

he was three. Now he’s six, and he’s found his way over to the dinosaur tub.

I don’t know the level of the book he’s chosen, but it’s clear it’s way too dif-

ficult for him according to traditional leveling guidelines. As I confer with

him, I learn that not only can Adam read the word dinosaur, but when I

teach him how to activate and apply what he already knows about

dinosaurs, he can also read words like triceratops, stegosaurus, plant eater,

asteroid, and millions of years ago. Because he knows so much about the

topic and his motivation is high, he’s able to read a book of greater diffi-

culty than a traditional assessment might indicate.

Think, too, about children who know about certain types of stories.

Caroline, Devon, and Nicole, like Adam and his dinosaurs, know fairy

tales. Because these stories have a language all their own, it’s no surprise that

with only a little nudging, they can read words like “Once upon a time,”

“Who’s that sleeping in my bed?” “Not I,” said the pig,” “Trip, trap, trip,

trap,” and “I’ll huff and I’ll puff, and I’ll blow your house down!” The story

lines are so well known to them that they can navigate text that, based on

readability alone, would appear too challenging.

Schema

When we begin to talk about using schema, or prior knowledge, to com-

prehend text, it makes sense to talk with kids about combining what they

know about themselves as readers and what they know about the books

available to them in the classroom to help them make thoughtful choices.

Chapter 4: Settling In

One day I might read four or five books from the tub labeled “Learn to

Read.” I’ll point out things I notice as I read, and after reading several vol-

umes in this series, children begin to join in with things they notice, too.

When I’ve finished reading, I’ll ask, “So, what do we know about these

kinds of books? Let’s make a list of what we know to help us remember.” I

write “Learn to Read” at the top of the sheet, record the class’s thinking,

and tape the sheet on the wall above the tub. In the days to come we do this

for six or seven tubs of books. Throughout the year, children assume

responsibility for researching other tubs of books as they build schema for

new series, authors, or types of text.

I also ask, “What kind of a reader would this type of book be best for?

Do you think these books would be smart choices for kids just learning to

read, those who have had a little more practice reading, or someone who

has been practicing a long time? Why?” We decide that because the print is

large, the songs, rhymes, and stories are familiar, the text is predictable, and

the pictures match the words, the “Learn to Read” books would be good for

kids just learning to read or for someone wanting to read something that’s

short and fun.

Connecting what children know about the books in the classroom to

what they know about themselves as readers helps narrow their selections.

When a child knows that he is just starting to read, and that the “Ready Set

Read” books usually contain familiar fairy tales, with only a few sentences on

a page, attractive pictures, and big print, he knows right where to go. Or if a

child is a more fluent reader, and she knows that the “Frog and Toad” books

are about two friends and their adventures, and that the books have quite a

few words on a page and a few pictures, she’ll know she’ll be interested.

Motivation

What was it about the story Amazing Grace that so motivated Lauren to

want to read it? Her story is not as unique as it once was. Now I know more

about the power of the read-aloud and the discussions that ensue, the value

of student choice, the importance of creating literate environments that are

purposeful, accessible, and organized, and the significance of teacher atti-

tudes and expectations.

When I read aloud a favorite book to children, I’m doing more than

reading a good story. I’m showing my love and enthusiasm for reading and

learning, I’m sharing my thinking and inviting children to join me, and I’m

encouraging and expecting students to do the same in their reading. My

message is clear: I love reading. I know you will, too. Let me show you how.

Reading with Meaning

Children know I’m not going to ask them to do something beyond

their capabilities. I want them to succeed, and I offer recommendations

that are just within their reach. And because they trust me to know them

well, they respond in ways that sometimes surprise both of us. Success

begets motivation.

Visitors to our classroom sometimes wonder how children as young as

six, seven, and eight can sustain reading for forty-five or fifty minutes a day.

When children understand that they share in the responsibility for their

learning, when they have a say in the books they read, and when what they

are asked to do has meaning, they are able to read for long stretches at a

time.

When children recommend books to each other, share their thinking

and learning at the end of a workshop, or sign up as an expert on the “Want

to learn to read a new book?” chart, they motivate each other. When several

children decide to tackle a challenging text together, stay in the meeting

area after a read-aloud to reread parts of a text and take the day’s conversa-

tion deeper, they set the standard for thinking and learning in the class-

room.

Variety

Can you imagine reading only professional books, only poetry, or only the

books on the Oprah table? I can’t either. But what about limiting kids to

only one level and/or type of text day after day? That’s hard to imagine, too.

I worry when we methodically move children through book after book,

level after level, all to achieve some target number that labels them—and

us—proficient.

I worry about their engagement and enthusiasm for reading and learn-

ing, I worry about their concluding that reading fast is reading well, and I

worry about losing the Adams, the Carolines, the Devons, and the Nicoles

along the way. Readers of all ages need a variety of text type and level of dif-

ficulty.

How do I teach children how to thoughtfully select a variety of text

that meets their needs as readers? I begin by bringing in the odd assortment

of reading that’s stacked beside my bed. I show them the Pottery Barn cata-

log and the dog-eared page that shows the quilt I’m thinking of ordering for

my son Noah. I hold up my book group book, Flags of Our Fathers, and

share some of what I’ve written on the sticky notes jutting out everywhere.

They see my Language Arts magazine, and the article where I’ve highlighted

parts I want to remember. I show them I Read It, but I Don’t Get It, by Cris

Chapter 4: Settling In

Tovani; This Same Sky, A Collection of Poems from Around the World selected

by Naomi Shihab Nye; and a book called The Hours recommended to me

by my friend Chryse Hutchins.

I talk about how some of my reading is easy for me, like the catalog;

just right, like Language Arts, Flags of Our Fathers, and I Read It, but I Don’t

Get It; and challenging, like The Hours and many of the poems in the

poetry book. I point out the variety of text I’m reading—a magazine, a cat-

alog, a nonfiction text, poetry, and fiction—and my reasons for choosing

them.

Then I say, “Let’s take about fifteen minutes right now to make new

book selections. Think about choosing a variety of books, both in the type

of text you are choosing and the level of difficulty. Think about whether

they are easy for you, just right, or challenging. Remember, readers mostly

read books that are just right, but you could decide on an easy one or a

challenging one, too. Think about what you know about yourself as a

reader and the books in the classroom to help you make good choices. Last

of all, make sure you are able to talk about why you’ve made the choices

you’ve made. Let me know if I can help.”

Twenty minutes later, the children are seated in a circle, their stacks of

books in front of them. They’re eager to share their selections. Everyone is

browsing through the various choices; many are sharing their books with

each other. This is exactly what I’d hoped for. I love it when I have a stack

of new books to read, and I want the children to feel the same way.

To help everyone focus I ask a question: “Griffy, would you like to

share your books, and tell us why you chose them?”

“Yes, thank you.” Griffy holds up Little Bear’s Friend by Else

Holmelund Minarik. “Well, you see, I got this one because I’ve read all the

other Little Bears, and this is my last one. Little Bear Books are just perfect

for me. And then this one, Mouse Soup, Mrs. Miller gave it to me because

she thinks it’s just right for me, too, and it’s funny and she knows I like

funny ones. I got this one, Tough Boris, because I have lots of schema for

pirates. It’s cinchy for me, but I still like to read it. Let me show you my

favorite page! I got Mouse Tales because it looks sort of like Mouse Soup, and

it was in the same tub so it’s the same author—there’s lots more in there if

you want one, too. And then I found this huge book about space. See?” He

struggles to lift the heavy text. “I know a lot about space. This book looks

like fiction but it’s really nonfiction, and it’s about the planets and all that

stuff we’re learning about. Remember about Venus, and how it’s the hottest

planet? It shows how the gases are all trapped up, see, right here? The words

are very tiny and hard for me, but it’s still good for me.”

Reading with Meaning

“Wow, Griffy,” I say, “you made some very thoughtful choices! What

do the rest of you notice about Griffy’s book selection?”

I believe children need to spend their time reading appropriate text—

and I believe we need to broaden our definition of what’s appropriate.

Singing and pointing to the words of “Long Tall Texan” with a friend, look-

ing at a shark book and learning from its pictures and captions, and reading

Hush Little Baby by Sylvia Long because you’ve been working hard and

need a break, are appropriate choices, too.

Now that I’ve modeled and the children have practiced many of the

ways readers make good choices, how else might I support children as they

choose? How else might I ensure that most of their chosen books are at

their instructional level? I take an active role. What’s most effective?

Book talks. About once a week, all year long, right before the mini-les-

son, I showcase three or four books that I know will be just the right match

for specific children. I read the title and the first three or four pages, and I

browse out loud through the book. Then I say, “You know, Matt, I’m think-

ing this book might be perfect for you. Would you like to give it a try?”

Sticky notes. If I know a child might not like a public recommenda-

tion, or if I find a book before or after school that I think would be a good

choice for a child, I often write a personal message on a sticky note, place it

on the cover, and put it in the child’s cubby. I might write, “Hi, Nicole! I

saw this book and thought of you. It’s another version of The Three Billy

Goats Gruff. Let me know what you think of it. Love, Mrs. Miller. P.S.

Who’s that tripping over my bridge?”

Read-aloud. Remember to read aloud some of the titles children are

reading, too. Not only does it elevate the status of the book and the status

of the child you recommend it to, but it also gives children a preview of the

text. Once I’ve finished, I’ll say to a child I know would benefit from read-

ing the book, “Grant, would you like to try this one?”

Recommending charts. Though I certainly do my share, I’m not the

only one doing the recommending! Children love recommending books to

each other. To facilitate this process, I divide a large piece of chart paper

into three columns headed “To and From,” “I Recommend,” and “Why?”

Go looking together. Sometimes a child just needs you to take him or

her by the hand to several tubs that you know would offer good choices.

Browse through the books with him, thinking out loud about the kinds of

things you want him to be thinking about when he begins to choose inde-

pendently.

Pick one. Offer three choices, all of which you know are just right. Ask

the child to pick one.

Chapter 4: Settling In

Conferring. Conferences are the best time to talk with children indi-

vidually about books and book selection. If a child is making consistently

poor choices, you can talk about why these choices are not going to help

her become a better reader, and recommend some that would. When you

make recommendations, think out loud about why you think these books

would be just right.

For example, to Sean, who is comfortable reading The Lady with the

Alligator Purse by Nadine Bernard Westcott, Little Green Frog by Beth

Coombe Harris, and The Bear Went over the Mountain by Robert Bingham

Downs day after day, I say during a conference, “Wow, Sean, you really

know these books. How did you learn to read them so well?” He says, “I

just kept practicing.” I say, “That’s so smart. And you know what? I think

you’re ready for something a little more challenging. You know how you

can read all the words and you understand everything that is going on?

That tells me you’re ready for some books that will help you become an

even better reader. Are you up for a challenge?” The slight nod gives me the

go-ahead. “Let’s go look at the tub of ‘Start off Stories’—do you remember

where they are?”

Sure enough, he leads me to the “Start off Stories” and we have a seat

on the floor. “Remember these books?” I say, pointing to the tub and the

“What do we know about ‘Start off Stories’?” sheet taped above it. “They

have a few more words on the page than your other books, but you have

schema for lots of them already. The pictures match the words, and the text

is predictable. And you’re not going to believe this, but some of them are

fairy tales, and I know you like those. See? Here’s The Little Yellow Duck—

it’s kind of like The Ugly Duckling. And here’s The Ant and the Dove—it’s a

good story, too. You want to try The Little Yellow Duck? Wow, I love it when

kids are up for a challenge! That’s so smart.” At this point I’m thinking,

“Come on, Sean, I’m the one doing all the thinking here! Are you listen-

ing?” But I say, “Let’s read a little of it together. . . .”

I check in on Sean now and then to see how he’s doing, and I ask him

if he’d like to share what he learned about himself as a reader today. He

declines. Unwilling to let the opportunity pass—both for him and for other

kids who could learn from him—I say, “You did such a smart thing today,

Sean. Would you mind if I shared how you tried something new?” He

relents, and in the end decides to do it himself. At share time, Sean tells the

class, “Well, today I got a new book, and here it is. I didn’t think I could

read it, but Mrs. Miller thought I could, and I can. I’m going to practice it

some more.” (Hey, maybe he was listening!)

■■■

Reading with Meaning

Once we decide that it’s important for children to have a say in the books

they read, not only must we teach them how to make wise choices, we must

also make available high-quality selections that offer a wide variety of levels,

topics, and types of text. This probably sounds as though I have a huge col-

lection of books in the classroom. I do. But it hasn’t always been that way.

Check out your school and local libraries. They almost always have

great children’s collections, both for reading and thinking aloud and for

independent reading. Get to know librarians—they can be wonderful

resources, and they’ll often let you check out large numbers of books for

long periods of time if they know your purpose. Borrowing books from

libraries also lets you try them out first and decide which ones you might

want to own or order.

Be choosy. Build your collection slowly. For thinking aloud, look for

high-quality literature that is likely to prompt thinking and discussion, has

believable, compelling characters, and deals with real childhood issues,

especially complex ones. When we believe it’s important for children to

construct meaning by interacting with the text and developing personal

perspectives, we must select books that give them the opportunity to do so.

Childhood is not all happy, not all sad, not all good, and not all bad. Don’t

be afraid to let kids know you know this.

Be choosy about what you select for kids to read independently, too.

You don’t like Captain Underpants or Scooby Doo? Don’t let them invade

your classroom! Children should be reading well-written books that pro-

mote thinking and have believable, compelling characters who talk the way

real people talk and do the things real people do.

Many first graders would give their eyeteeth (if they had them) to

read chapter books. I do have a few in the room, but even if the children

can read them, I don’t encourage them to do so—picture books are often

better written and more thought-provoking for young readers. And

besides, what’s the rush? Children have years and years of chapter books

ahead of them.

Beware, too, of the giant boxes of books dropped off in the lounge

from the Kiwanis Club’s annual book drive. I know they mean well, but do

we really want our children learning to read with someone else’s old basal

readers, Walt Disney’s cartoon versions of the classics, pop-up books that no

longer pop, or picture books scribbled on by a three-year-old long since

grown? Yes, there will be treasures. Just don’t get into thinking all books are

equal. Just like the outcast computers that come our way, quality really is

better than quantity!

Chapter 4: Settling In

Evaluation: Mine

Most schools require some sort of baseline assessment of children’s reading

skills at the beginning of the year, and mine is no exception. In first grade

we use the Reader Observation Survey developed by Marie Clay and the

Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA) to evaluate early literacy

achievement. The survey assesses letter identification, concepts of print,

sight words, writing vocabulary, and dictation. The DRA measures a child’s

reading level through running records and retellings.

We administer the Reader Observation Survey as needed and the

DRA at the end of the year as well as at the beginning, in order to give

teachers, children, and parents a clear indication of how children have

grown as readers in the areas mentioned above. But how do we measure a

child’s developing expertise in other areas of reading comprehension? It’s

very different than evaluating a child’s skills in decoding. I can’t give com-

parative levels or numbers to parents and say they represent how their child

has grown in his or her ability to comprehend. I can share what I’ve learned

from children during conferences, observations I’ve written in my note-

book detailing what I’ve seen and heard the children say, and artifacts that

show how children acquire new knowledge and construct meaning.

You’ll find examples of these kinds of responses in the “Evidence of

Understanding and Independence” sections at the end of each strategy

chapter. These sections include a wide range of artifacts—children’s work,

their comments and strategy definitions, and classroom charts we’ve con-

structed together. You’ll notice that examples of comprehension ability or

development aren’t tied directly to a child’s ability to decode. A child with

few decoding skills can make an amazingly complex inference while reading

a beginning picture book. Likewise, a child who is an accomplished

decoder may struggle to make even the simplest connections from his read-

ing to his life experience. You’ll notice from the syntax and spelling in the

classroom artifacts that the children are clearly beginning readers, yet they

are able to use their developing comprehension skills in sophisticated ways.

I’ve experimented with many different ways of record keeping, and

have finally settled on small 4-by-6-inch notebooks that I keep in a basket

near my desk. There is a notebook for each child, and every day before our

literacy workshops I scoop up four or five from the front of the basket.

Throughout the work sessions, I confer individually with these four or five

children and make notes about what I’ve learned about them as readers,

writers, and learners.

Reading with Meaning

Entries might include words the child wrote on a sticky note, oral

responses, a quick running record, and/or strategies the child uses for decod-

ing and comprehension. I also make note of a child’s specific strengths and

areas where he or she needs more support. Listing specific examples from

conferences and observations keeps my comments real and in context, and

puts me back in the scene when I need to refresh my memory.

At the end of each week or so, I look at these notebooks, along with

notes from my own notebook and the children’s response sheets, and deter-

mine if there are children with similar needs who would benefit from addi-

tional support. I meet with small, needs-based groups for fifteen to twenty

minutes during the independent practice part of the workshop. Small

groups may need additional instruction, modeling, and practice making

relevant connections, sounding out words, or working with vocabulary

development. Or a small group may need to challenge themselves by choos-

ing more sophisticated texts, applying a strategy in a new genre, or sharing

their thinking and learning with others.

In these lessons children most often use the same text, but I also ask

them to bring a book they are reading independently. We use like texts so we

have the same point of reference; they bring the books they are reading inde-

pendently so we can make a plan for independent practice. In the lesson, I

model what I want them to practice, and we discuss why it’s important.

Small groups like these give children opportunities to teach and learn

from each other as they work together to apply and practice strategies for

comprehension, decoding, and meaning of words. We chart our learning

and children share their new insights during share time. Groups stay

together for one, two, or three work sessions over a one- or two-week

period. I meet with just one small group a day as needed, ensuring time to

confer with individual children, too.

What About Phonics and

Word Identification?

My focus in this book is on helping children develop strategies for compre-

hension. But you might be wondering how children learn about letters,

sounds, and words. Some believe it’s not wise to teach young children

strategies for comprehension while they are still learning to decode. I

believe these strategies should be taught side by side.

Chapter 4: Settling In

In Comprehension Instruction: Research-Based Best Practices (2002),

Pearson and Duke write that “‘comprehension instruction’ and ‘primary

grades’ should appear together often—that comprehension instruction in

the primary grades is not only possible but wise and beneficial rather than

detrimental to overall reading development” (p. 247)

Children love to learn about words and are fascinated by their growing

ability to use them in new ways. To capitalize on this enthusiasm, I use the

same strategies for teaching words as I use for teaching comprehension.

Explicit instruction, modeling, reading high-quality literature and chil-

dren’s writing, and giving children time to practice real reading and writing

are the cornerstones of my teaching. I find that much of the work we do is

integrated into our whole-group discussions, small-group meetings, and

independent practice sessions every day.

I use the morning message as an opportunity to teach and reinforce

earlier lessons on sentence structure, vocabulary, and strategies for decod-

ing. I record a couple of simple sentences on the dry-erase board, such as

“Good morning everybody. Cory’s mom is coming in to help us today. We

will be working on determining importance, and we get to explore our new

books about the solar system.” We investigate these words and sentences in

a variety of ways. We might focus on identifying sight words, recognizing

spelling patterns, finding little words in big words, chunking sounds

together, or learning word meanings—all using the morning message.

Singing breathes life into the classroom and provides opportunities to

investigate words, letters, and sounds. When the whole class is gathered on

the rug, and we sing “Dr. Seuss’s ABC’s,” the children learn the names of

the letters and the sounds associated with them. When children listen to

stories, I explain what they can observe about concepts of print and lan-

guage, how stories are structured, and how to figure out the meanings or

words. Or I give children copies of songs we’ve learned and ask them to

point to the words as we sing, matching voice and print, associating letters

and sounds, and building sight word vocabularies.

In small-group meetings, we often work with spelling patterns or

word families. We begin by talking about a particular spelling pattern, such

as ight. I find several examples in a couple of books and, after discussing the

words, I send the children off to collect their own words with the same pat-

tern. We chart and share our learning. When children recite and read nurs-

ery rhymes, play with tongue twisters, and read snippets of text I’ve retyped

from favorite read-alouds, they develop a sense of the predictability of lan-

guage, the repetitive nature of words, and the relationships between letters

and sounds.

Reading with Meaning

Children have daily opportunities to learn about words and sentences

during independent reading and writing. They learn about sound-symbol

relationships and features of words when I ask them to write down all the

sounds they hear when writing independently. Every moment children

spend reading independently is a time to apply what they know about

words in a real, relevant context. I often transform the snippets of text I’ve

retyped from favorite books and songs into cloze activities. By eliminating

several nouns, for example, or even omitting every sixth or seventh word

from the text, I encourage children to use their developing knowledge of

syntax to fill in the blanks that make sense and sound like language.

I make a point to stop with the class on the way to the lunchroom to

read a few words or sentences from a third grader’s pond project or point

out the words they already know around the lunchroom. When we’re on

our way to a field trip, the children revel in showing me the words they

know from every billboard and fast food restaurant we pass. I know that

they are acquiring a sight word vocabulary they will build on for a lifetime.

While introducing children to the fascinating quirks and essentials in

the world of words, I try to remember that a real context in reading and

writing is just as important when I am teaching comprehension. The most

Chapter 4: Settling In

FIGURE 4.1 An

in-progress classroom

chart that shows the

side-by-side teaching

of decoding and

comprehension

effective ways to teach comprehension are also the most effective ways to

teach words. I model, think aloud about how I use particular strategies to

figure out unknown words, and list our learning on chart paper. I use a vari-

ety of literature as well as the children’s writing, and I encourage the chil-

dren to think aloud during share time about their success in pronouncing

words they never thought they could.

To emphasize my belief in the side-by-side teaching of decoding and

comprehension, we have a chart in the classroom titled “We are learning

strategies that readers use to construct meaning and decode words” (see

Figure 4.1). The chart is divided into two columns: “What do readers do to

help themselves understand and enjoy their reading?” and “What do read-

ers do when they come to a word they don’t know?” We add new learning

and information to the chart throughout the year.

Reading with Meaning

Schema

Children combine what

they know about decod-

ing and comprehension

as they read and think

about text.

A reminder to help

children make thoughtful

and appropriate book

selections is always a

good idea.

t is early October, and I’m getting anxious. “Are they ready?” I wonder.

Twenty-seven first graders sit together on the carpet in our small meet-

ing area. The lamps are lit, the Pumpkin Spice candle is burning, and

my lesson is ready to go. I scan the crowd. Kenta has his hands inside his

bright orange Bronco shirt. Bret is braiding Maggie’s hair. And Whit is

rolling his socks down, up, then down again.

My mind flashes back to last year’s class. “Were they ever like this?” I

wonder. “Will this group learn to read as well, and think as deeply?” I

remember what my husband said when I ran this by him the night before.

“You say the same thing every year,” he told me, “and then in November,

you can’t believe how smart they are.” With his words in my head, I begin.

Thinking Aloud: Showing Kids How

I thought that once I became aware of the thought processes going on

inside my head as I read, modeling this activity—thinking out loud while

reading a picture book to first graders—would be a piece of cake. Not

exactly . . .

I cringe when I think of one particularly awkward attempt, using Eve

Bunting’s book The Wall. Colleagues had told me what a fabulous book it

was, and I lost no time grabbing it off the shelf of my local library. I flipped

through its pages that night at home, unsure of what I’d say as I read, but

oddly confident that something would come to me.

Nothing did. The next morning in class I heard myself rambling on,

unsure of what to say and making things up as I went. Flustered and embar-

rassed, I realized from this experience that no longer could I continue to

blithely read away, making a comment about beautiful language, throwing

out a question or two, sharing a random connection. No longer could I

grab just any book off the shelf just because it had been recommended to

me, or because it was written by an author I knew and loved. The bar had

been raised. Now, when I model the thought processes proficient readers

use, I’m deliberate. I make sure my think-alouds are genuine, my language

precise, my responses thoughtful. Here’s how to make that happen.

Proper planning prevents poor performance! Explicit modeling requires

thoughtful planning. We all know of times in our teaching when we’ve been

able to “wing it,” and sometimes these lessons turn out to be our most bril-

liant. But “winging it” to model our thinking as we read is difficult to pull

off. Ask yourself beforehand, “What do I want kids to understand about

Reading with Meaning

this strategy? Of all the places in the text where I could authentically think

out loud, which two or three would best illustrate my point? Which ones

am I most comfortable talking about?” Mark those places before your les-

son, and think about what you will say and how you will say it.

Resist the temptation to talk your way through a lesson or figure it out

as you go. Being absolutely clear about the one point you’re trying to make

helps drive it home. For example, if the lesson is on making text-to-text

connections, you won’t need to share those places where you have ques-

tions, or even text-to-self connections. Be aware of your focus and keep it.

Authenticity matters.I can’t fake it. My connections, or questions, or

inferences—whatever the strategy focus happens to be—must be genuine.

That’s why book selection is key; choosing well-written picture books, nar-

rative and informational nonfiction, and poetry that you love and can use

over the course of a year to model a variety of strategies is essential. No mat-

ter how perfect someone else may tell you a book is, or how great a lesson

they taught using it, it won’t be perfect for you unless you can connect with

it and put your personal stamp on it in some way. Shopping for books is

akin to shopping for clothes—if we don’t take the time to try them on to

see how they fit, they are destined to remain in our closets and on our

shelves.

Use precise language.Be precise when you share your thinking. Say

what you need to say as clearly and concisely as you can, then move on. Use

real language and standard terminology when talking with children; noth-

ing says “inferring” quite like “inferring.” Once you’ve decided on how

you’ll define a strategy and how you’ll format your responses to the reading,

keep your language the same. Remember, you’re the model. What you say

and how you say it becomes what they say and how they say it!

■■■

When I begin to teach children how to think out loud, I have the same

expectations for them as I do for myself. I want their think-alouds to be

genuine, their language precise, their responses thoughtful. I start by help-

ing them format their responses. My goal is to give them a framework for

thinking, as well as to help them build a common language for talking

about books. For example, when children share their connections, I ask

them to begin this way: “When I read [or heard] these words . . . it

reminded me of . . .” or “When I saw the picture of . . . it made me think

about. . . . ”

Asking children to recall the words or point out the picture keeps their

connection text based and gives the rest of us a point of reference as we lis-

Chapter 5:Schema

ten and learn from their thinking. If a child says only, “My neighbor brings

us flowers,” I might say, “What were the words in the story that made you

think about your neighbor?” If the child doesn’t know, I’ll reread the page

and ask him to listen carefully. When he identifies the appropriate section I

say, “So when you heard the words about the lady growing and sharing

flowers with her neighbors, it reminded you of your neighbor who shares

his huge sunflowers with you? Is that right? Now you try it!”

When the children and I share our connections (or mental images,

inferences, questions, and so on) to enhance understanding and construct

meaning, I call it thinking through the text together (Anderson et al. 1992).

This early phase of “having at it” is essential both now and throughout the

year, because here readers have opportunities for activating, building,

changing, and revising their schema as they engage in conversation with

their peers and their teacher.

Early in the year, thinking through text together helps children

become aware of what’s going on inside their heads as I read, learn how to

articulate their thinking for themselves and others, and think aloud about

their connections or mental images. Later, as read-alouds and children’s

thinking grow in sophistication, thinking through text together also allows

real opportunities for constructing meaning, reflection, and insight.

Asking children to get eye-to-eye and knee-to-knee is another early

way to have at it, and allows more voices to be heard. When I say, “One,

two, three, eye-to-eye and knee-to-knee,” children turn to someone sitting

close to them and think out loud about something I ask them to discuss

from the read-aloud or mini-lesson. They might share connections, predict

outcomes and explain their reasons for the prediction, create a definition

for a strategy, or even develop a plan for resolving an issue on the play-

ground—anything that gives them practice thinking out loud about their

thinking. This format is also useful when many children want to share, or

when you want to encourage children who are shy or reluctant to share in

the large group.

■■■

Once children understand what they’re being asked to do, you’ll begin to

see a change in how they respond to the read-alouds. But what do we do

with all this great thinking? How can we “hold thinking”—make it both

permanent and visible?

Recording children’s talk in my notebook and creating large (24-by-

36-inch) charts based on what they have to say is one way to make thinking

permanent and trace our work together. I can’t possibly chart everything

Reading with Meaning

(though I am known as the “chart lady” in some circles), but I do create

“anchor charts” after lessons from which I want children to remember a

specific strategy or concept. I write a note of explanation at the top of the

chart and note snippets of conversation, individual comments, and state-

ments that reflect our work together.

Anchor charts make our thinking permanent and visible, and so allow

us to make connections from one strategy to another, clarify a point, build

on earlier learning, and simply remember a specific lesson.

The First Schema Lesson

“Girls and boys, you know how we’ve been learning about what good read-

ers do when they come to a word they don’t know? Well, today we are going

to begin learning about what good readers do to better understand and

have fun with their reading. Do you know that great readers think and read

at the same time? You do? That’s so smart! Teachers know that, too, and

we’ve learned that one of the most important things readers do when they

read is to make connections from what they already know to information in

the text.

“Thinking about what you already know is called using your schema, or

using your background knowledge. Schema is all the stuff that’s already

inside your head, like places you’ve been, things you’ve done, books you’ve

read—all the experiences you’ve had that make up who you are and what

you know and believe to be true. When you use your schema, it helps you

use what you know to better understand and interact with the text.”

I look out at Whit and notice his socks still require attention. Kenta’s

hands are outside his Bronco shirt, but now they’re picking rocks out of the

soles of his orange and blue Nikes, making little piles. Bret’s braiding

appears to be nearing completion.

“There are many ways readers use schema, but today we are going to

talk about just one way: using schema to make connections from our read-

ing, or the text, to ourselves. We’ll call these text-to-self connections. When

you make connections when you read, it’s kind of like having a conversa-

tion going on in your head.”

Twenty-seven blank faces stare up at me. Two parents have joined us;

make that twenty-nine. I forge ahead. “Let me show you what I mean. I’m

going to read a story to you; its title is The Relatives Came by Cynthia

Rylant. I’ll read for a while, then I’ll stop and think out loud to show you

Chapter 5: Schema

how I use my schema, or what I already know, to make connections from

my life to the story. I’m going to let you know what’s going on inside my

head while I’m reading the story out loud to you.”

To avoid confusion between reading and thinking, I tell them, “When

I’m holding the book up like this, I’ll be reading. When the book is down

on my lap like this, I’ll be thinking out loud. Are you ready?”

Text-to-Self Connections

“This page makes me laugh. You see right here, where I read to you, ‘It was

different, going to sleep with all that new breathing in the house’? I under-

stand exactly what Cynthia Rylant meant. That’s because at the same time I

was reading, I was making a connection to when I was a little girl, remem-

bering how my family and all my cousins and aunts and uncles would visit

my grandparents in their farmhouse on old Route 92 near Oskaloosa, Iowa.

“Sometimes it was so hot and sticky at night that we’d all pile down to

the living room—just like in this picture—because it was the only air-con-

ditioned place in the house. We’d sleep together on the black carpet with

the pink and red roses intertwined, listening to Aunt Rosie’s scary Melvin

stories and dreaming of Shetland pony rides, the midway at the state fair,

and Grandma’s gingerbread boy or girl pancakes.”

As soon as I’ve shared my connection to the text, I say, “Did you

notice how much fun I was having just thinking about being with my

cousins and sleeping downstairs on those hot Iowa nights? I’ll probably

always remember The Relatives Came because of all the connections I make

while I’m reading it.”

When I get to the page where the relatives are heading back to

Virginia and everyone is waving good-bye, I read it, then put the book in

my lap.

“I love this part. When I saw the picture of the people standing in

their pajamas and waving the relatives off in the dark, right away I began to

think about a good-bye game my grandma and I used to play. It was called

‘Kissed You Last.’ When we’d get up so early in the morning to drive back

to Colorado, my grandma and I would always see who would get to kiss the

other one last. I would always win, because I kept blowing kisses all the way

down the lane and onto the highway! I loved playing that game. Do you see

how using my schema helped me understand just how the people in the

book feel?”

Reading with Meaning

As the story ends, I notice I have everyone’s attention. The two parents

are smiling. Encouraged, I can’t wait to talk about what the children are

thinking. “So what did you notice?” I ask. Only Cory raises his hand. “Can

we go read now?” he asks. “Oh, brother,” I’m thinking, but I say with a

smile, “Absolutely. Happy reading, everyone!”

Over the next two weeks there will be similar lessons. I think aloud on

consecutive days—Julie Brinkloe’s Fireflies and Gloria Houston’s My Great-

Aunt Arizona are two favorites. By this time children are usually itching to

have their say, and while I continue to model my connections, I encourage

them to share theirs, too. This is when we begin thinking through the text

together and getting eye-to-eye and knee-to-knee. Koala Lou by Mem Fox,

The Snowy Day by Ezra Jack Keats, and Chrysanthemum by Kevin Henkes

never fail to engage kids and get them connecting.

At this point I begin scripting and charting their responses. Kids love

to see their connections (and their name) in print, and it shows them how

much I value what they have to say. Charting holds thinking—it makes our

thinking public and permanent, and traces our work together.

Making Meaningful Connections

When I first began teaching children about using their schema to help

them make connections to text, they connected to everything! I remember

children waving their hands wildly, making the dreaded “Uunh! Uunh!

Uunh!” sound, barely able to contain themselves. When I’d call on them,

they might say something like, “I have a connection! You know the author

of the book?” And I’d say, “You mean Eve Bunting?” “Yeah. Well my

cousin’s name is Eve.” “Really?” I’d say, and on we’d go. And there’d be other

comments, like, “I have a red dress, too,” or, in response to a picture of a

tiny bird in the upper corner of an illustration, “I once had a bird.” Then

another child would say, “You had a bird? I have a bird right now! His name

is Sal.” And then, “Sal? That’s a girl’s name!” Giggles ensue. By this time,

neither Eve Bunting nor I could get the kids back.

It’s not that I now get only brilliant, meaningful connections from

children—every year someone knows an Eve or has a red dress, too, or even

once had a bird. But I’ve learned it’s up to me to teach through these kinds

of connections. Now I know it’s up to me to gently redirect the children’s

tangential responses right away before they become the norm.

Chapter 5: Schema

Thinking Through Text Together:

An Anchor Chart in the Making

I begin a mini-lesson several days later this way: “You know how we’ve been

talking about the difference between connections that help us with our reading

and the ones that don’t? I have an idea that might help us. Today when I’m

reading aloud to you, I’m going to record your connections in my notebook,

and after school I’ll write them on a chart so you can see them. Tomorrow we’ll

talk about them and figure out which kinds of connections help us most.”

After school I transfer all the children’s responses to a chart, which

reads as follows:

We have been learning that expert readers make connections

from the text to themselves to better understand their reading.

When we read Hazel’s Amazing Mother by Rosemary Wells, we

made these text-to-self-connections:

■ I helped the mailman once.

■ I have a calico cat.

■ I once got lost in the mall and I was so scared!

■ My grandma made me a doll.

■ I have new shoes, too.

■ My neighbor’s name is Hazel.

■ Once my sister was playing and the big kids took her ball. My

dad came out and told them to go home.

■ Belle’s story about her mom and “the power of love.”

The next day we decide to put a “1” next to each response that helped us

with the text and a “2” next to responses that didn’t help us. I tell the children

that as I reread the story, they should think about the connections we made

yesterday and try to figure out which ones help us understand the story best.

“Let’s look at the first one,” I say when I finish reading. “‘I helped the

mailman once.’ Does that help us learn more about the story?” A chorus of

no’s. (I put a 2 there.)

“And this one: ‘I have a calico cat.’ Do you think that connection will

help us?” More no’s. (Another 2.)

“What about this? ‘I once got lost in the mall and I was so scared!’

Does this one help us?” Olivia answers, “It could help. Put a 1 there.” I

think to myself, “A 1? What’s meaningful about the mall?” But I say, “Keep

talking, Olivia. Tell us why you think there should be a 1 there.”

Reading with Meaning

“Well, if you had really ever been lost in the mall, it would help you

understand how Hazel felt when she got lost. You would get it.” Wow, I

think, she’s right! And I wonder: How many times have I missed opportu-

nities like this one? How many times have I not pursued a child’s thinking

simply because it didn’t fit with mine?

I think, “Thank you, Olivia!” but I say, “What are the rest of you

thinking? Put a thumb up if you agree with Olivia.” Twenty-six thumbs

come up, and though I understand they all don’t get it, I know that some of

them learned something from Olivia just now, and there will be more

opportunities just like this one.

We go on down the chart, marking 1’s and 2’s as we go. When we fin-

ish, I ask, “What can we learn from all this great thinking we just did?”

Taylor, who up to now has just been listening, says, “Well, I think that

when something is only on one page, and you make a connection to it, and

then it just gets, umm, well, it just kinda gets swept out of the story, that

connection isn’t going to help you much.”

Justin looks at Taylor and says, “Yeah, ’cause it’s not so much about

the story—it’s not a very big connection.” “Yeah,” Taylor nods. “A tiny lit-

tle connection isn’t going to help you much.”

“Taylor and Justin,” I say, “I loved the way you two just had a conver-

sation, and I think I see what you mean. Boys and girls, how do you think

we might write that on our chart?”

Kendal answers, “How ’bout if we connect to a word, like mailman or

cat or soccer ball, that doesn’t really help us, but if we connect to a bigger

thing, like if it’s on almost all the pages and it’s what the book is really

about, like an idea or something, then it can help you.”

“Let’s see if I’ve got it,” I say. “Do you mean that if we make a connec-

tion to a word, like mailman, or maybe someone’s name, it probably won’t

be as helpful as connecting to something the book keeps coming back to,

like a big idea? Taylor, Justin, Kendal, everybody, do we have it?” Heads

nod, and I record it on the Hazel chart.

“My husband was right,” I think. “It’s not even November, and

already I can’t believe how smart they are!”

Releasing Responsibility:

Small-Group Work

Once I know what I want children to do in small groups, I need to think

through each lesson carefully. What words will I use to explain the lesson

Chapter 5: Schema

and its procedures clearly? What language will best convey my thinking and

serve as a model for theirs? What must I do to ensure that when their work

together begins, the tone of the classroom is not broken by children who

don’t know what to do, where to go, or what to do when they’re finished?

I’m explicit. I let children in on what we’ll be doing and why, what it

will look like, and my expectations for their work together.

It’s 10 .., and children are sprawled every which way on the worn,

warehouse-issue carpet. They are in groups of threes and fours, clustered

around three-foot-square pieces of white butcher paper. Arms and legs,

markers and crayons, are everywhere.

Before reading aloud Ira Sleeps Over by Bernard Waber, I tell the children,

“Today while I’m reading, I want you to keep your connections inside your

heads.” I explain that once the story is over, they will go to one of the big pieces

of paper on the floor (one child to a side, four to a group), talk together about

their connections to the story, and record their most important one using pic-

tures, words, or both. There is a copy of the book for each group (this isn’t

essential, but the multiple copies do help focus and support young readers).

As the children work in their groups, I talk with a few, but mostly I lis-

ten. Now, and during share time, I do some informal assessment. I want to

know things like

■ Are children making real connections to the story?

■ Do they understand how these connections help them?

■ What kind of language do they use when they talk to each other in

small groups?

I listen in on Whit, Ana, Maggie, and Cory. They are busy arranging

the paper just so, deciding who will sit where, and arguing about where the

exact middle of the paper is so they can place the markers there. Whit turns

his back to the group and at least begins to flip through the book, but the

conversation for Maggie, Cory, and Ana turns to crayons.

I’m groaning inside. Where’s that great talk I know they’re capable of?

But I resist getting in the middle of it. I glance around the room to see how

the other groups are doing and decide to stay where I am. I listen in again.

Ana is talking. “Remember the part of the story when he wanted his teddy

bear but it was at home? Well, that part reminded me of when I didn’t have

my teddy bear, and I really wanted it. Remember when everyone had lice?

My mom made me put all my stuffed animals in a big trash bag and I

couldn’t sleep with anything for a whole week! It was terrible. That’s what

I’m going to write about. Then I’ll make a big trash bag right here . . .”

Reading with Meaning

I start itching again (how long do lice live, anyway?), but Cory,

Maggie, and Whit are writing and drawing. Relieved, I remember that it

often takes adults a while to get focused—why should it be any different for

children? I check in with the other groups and notice Jake has drawn a pic-

ture of a little boy in a bed (Jake) and a little boy in the doorway waving

good-bye (Keenan). He writes, “The first time I went to Keenan’s house for

a sleep-over, I wasn’t homesick. But when he came to my house, he was.

He’s coming again, and I hope he makes it.” Many children have drawn

pictures of teddy bears, best friends, and beds.

About thirty minutes later, the big papers are stacked in the middle of

our meeting area, the children seated in a large circle around them. “Let’s

have the group whose paper is on top tell us about their connections first,”

I tell them. “Sit on the side of the paper that shows your work.”

As the small groups share, I discover that many children are making

connections to the story and are able to share them with others. I recognize

that fewer are able to think aloud about how making connections helps

them as readers, and most of those who do use my words (“It helps me

understand how Ira feels”). I remind myself (again) that children can use a

strategy without fully understanding it and that they will gradually gain

control of it through continued modeling and guided practice.

Text-to-Text Connections

When most children are able to make meaningful text-to-self connec-

tions—primarily in response to read-alouds and small-group work, but

sometimes also in their own reading—I begin to model and think aloud

about how and why readers use their schema to make connections from one

text to another. It’s tempting at this point to forgo thinking aloud to show

kids how. I used to assume that once children had become successful at

making text-to-self connections, the rest would come naturally. Not any-

more! Now, when I think about gradually releasing responsibility, I realize

that children—and teachers, too—move in and out of all phases (thinking

aloud, having at it, and letting go) several times during the teaching of each

strategy. Whenever I teach something new, I’ve learned to take the time to

be explicit and show children how.

Amazing Grace by Mary Hoffman and Tomie dePaola’s Oliver Button

Is a Sissy are a good pair of books to read aloud and demonstrate how mak-

ing text-to-text connections can help readers construct meaning and

Chapter 5: Schema

enhance understanding. I read Oliver Button first, and we talk through the

text together, making connections about teasing, bullies, talent shows, and

moms and dads. The next day I read Amazing Grace. By way of introduc-

tion, I tell the children that they’re getting so good at making text-to-self

connections, I want to teach them how readers make other kinds of con-

nections, too. “Let me show you what I mean . . .”

When we get to the part where Raj tells Grace she can’t be Peter Pan

because she isn’t a boy and Natalie whispers that Grace can’t be Peter Pan

because she’s black, I stop reading, put the book in my lap, and think aloud.

“You know, when I read these last two pages, where Raj told Grace she

couldn’t be Peter Pan because she isn’t a boy and Natalie said she couldn’t

because Peter Pan isn’t black, it reminded me of the book Oliver Button Is a

Sissy. Do you remember the part where all the boys are making fun of him

because he loves to dance? Look—see right here? I’m thinking of Oliver

Button at the same time I’m reading about Amazing Grace, and I’m think-

ing they’re alike in some ways. When it said that Grace keeps her hand up

to be Peter Pan, even when Natalie and Raj didn’t think she could be, I

remembered that Oliver Button didn’t give up, either, just because those

boys were teasing him.

“When readers do what I just did—when they make a connection

from a book that they’re reading to one they’ve read before—that’s called

making a text-to-text connection. Making text-to-text connections, or con-

nections from one book to another book, can help you understand the new

story and make predictions about what may happen based on what you

know from the other story. Let’s keep reading and see what happens next.”

When we get to the part where the class meets for auditions, I put the

book down again. “Right now, I’m predicting Grace is going to be Peter Pan

in the play. You know why I’m thinking that? Remember my earlier connec-

tions to Oliver Button, and how he practiced and practiced, just like Grace

did? And even though he didn’t win first prize in the talent show, things

worked out for him and the boys didn’t tease him anymore? I think it might

be the same for Grace, too. I think she’ll be chosen to play Peter Pan in the

school play, and I predict that Natalie and Raj are going to realize that what

they said to her was wrong and start being nicer to her. What do you think?”

The class’s prediction is unanimous, and is later confirmed. At the end

of the story, when I ask the kids what they noticed as I was making text-to-

text connections, Whit says, “I saw you doing lots of things, like stopping

to think, making predictions, and making connections to Oliver Button.”

“Wow,” I think, as I record his words. “What a difference a couple of weeks

makes!” But I say, “Good noticing, Whit! Anyone else?”

Reading with Meaning

Text-to-text connections go beyond comparing characters, of course;

but for early readers, it’s the perfect place to begin. Creating Venn diagrams

to compare characters or other features in pairs of books can show children

in a very visual way how text-to-text connections help the reader make pre-

dictions and enhance understanding. (Figure 5.1 shows my charting of con-

nections between Oliver Button and Amazing Grace; Figure 5.2 shows

Emily’s own Venn diagram of connections between Now One Foot, Now the

Other by Tomie dePaola and The Two of Them by Aliki. You’ll find that chil-

dren also love to compare different versions of the same story, particularly

fairy tales; and stories or other texts by the same author.

Schema Throughout the Year

Schema doesn’t end with text-to-self and text-to-text connections.

Throughout the year I teach children to use and develop their schema for

making text-to-world connections and exploring individual authors, partic-

Chapter 5: Schema

FIGURE 5.1 Venn diagram of the class’s connections between Amazing Grace by Mary

Hoffman and Oliver Button Is a Sissy by Tomie dePaola

ular types of text, text features and characteristics, and topics of interest to

the children.

Text-to-World Connections

I teach children about making text-to-world connections by listening and

paying attention to what they have to say and being aware of what’s going

on in the world. I used to think children as young as six, seven, and eight

needn’t wrestle with real-world issues such as war, homelessness, poverty, and

prejudice. But when it’s the buzz on the playground and in the lunchroom,

when it’s blaring from radios, televisions, and newspapers, it’s time to talk.

I’ve learned that children love to grapple with complex social and

moral issues, and they often have clearer heads than some grown-ups I

know! Sometimes I search for just the right book to help me launch the dis-

cussion; other times a read-aloud will spark a discussion about something I

hadn’t planned. Memorable text-to-world connections include

■ Kevan’s connection between Smoky Night by Eve Bunting and the

mini-riots the night the Broncos won the Super Bowl.

Reading with Meaning

FIGURE 5.2 Emily’s connections between Now One Foot, Now the Other by Tomie dePaola

and The Two of Them by Aliki

■ Ailey’s connection between I Have a Dream by Mike Francen and a

swastika that was burned onto our school’s playing field.

■ Max’s connection between Miss Maggie by Cynthia Rylant and his

aunt who has Alzheimer’s disease.

■ Taylor and Keenan’s connection between How Many Days to America?

by Eve Bunting and the war in Kosovo.

■ Lilli’s connection between Lifetimes by Bryan Mellonie and Robert

Ingpen and the rampage at Columbine High School.

■ Edward’s connection between a newspaper article about fighting in

the Balkans and gang activity in his neighborhood.

■ Children’s connections between a magazine article about the

September 11 tragedy in New York City and our own class “Promise

to Each Other.”

Building Schema for Authors, Types of Text, and

Text Elements

Because most early readers have limited schema for individual authors,

types of text, and text features and characteristics, I work throughout the

year to build schema in these areas. Teaching children to activate what they

know when they

■ encounter a book by a familiar author

■ select a picture book, songbook, or early reader

■ read poetry, narrative, or expository text

helps them know what to expect and how best to go about reading and

making sense of a particular text. I have three charts displayed and we add

to them whenever we become familiar with an author, learn about a differ-

ent type of text, or work with characteristics and features that are unique to

poetry, narrative, or expository text.

Topic Study: Activating, Building, and Revising Schema

Whenever we begin a new topic of study, I begin by asking, “So what’s our

schema for this? What do we know about —?” To help children activate

what they already know I sometimes liken the schema to opening mental

files in their heads. I tell them that sometimes we have to stop and think

about what we already know; we have to search our brains for that mental

file, open it, and make connections between what we know and the new

Chapter 5: Schema

information. I show the children some of my paper files, as well as those

I’ve created on the classroom computer. I model how I make new files, add

information to existing files, and revise and delete information.

“The files in your brain are a lot like these files,” I tell them. “You can

work with them the same way. Let’s try it. Remember yesterday when

Maggie asked the question, ‘Why do leaves change color?’ Open your men-

tal files right now—what information do you already have in your head

that would help answer her question?” I record each response on a 5-by-7-

inch sheet of paper and place the sheet in a paper file labeled “Why do

leaves change color?”

The next day I read aloud a text on the subject and as we encounter

new information, I write it down and add it to the file created the day

before. When we finish, we open the file and look closely at our thinking

and learning. We determine what information should be kept in the file

and what information should be crossed out or deleted. Figure 5.3 shows a

chart that records this process.

Reading with Meaning

FIGURE 5.3 A schema

chart

Chapter 5: Schema

“When you use

schema, it’s like

adding things together.

Say you see leaves

falling. You think in

your head, ‘Oh, it’s

fall now!’ It’s kind of

like your old schema

comes out of your head

and grabs the new

schema and pulls it

back inside your

head.”

Christopher

“Schema is what you

know; it’s your think-

ing.”

Madi

“When you change

your thinking about

something, you change

your schema.”

Devon

“Everything you hear

and see and feel,

everyplace you go and

everything you do,

puts more schema into

your head.”

Grant

■ Evidence of Understanding and Independence

Nicole’s connection to I Know a Lady by Charlotte Zolotow

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“When you use your

schema, it wakes up

memories.”

Nina

“It’s impossible to have

the same schema as

someone else. People

do different things, go

different places, and

read different books,

so how could their

schema be the same?”

Cory

“So let’s say you know

about something, you

have some schema for

it. Then you hear

something new about

it. You add the new

stuff and your schema

just gets bigger and

bigger.”

Ben

“When you have

schema for something,

you have to open up

that file in your brain

and make connections

to your reading or

writing or math.”

Bret

Abby’s connection to No Jumping on the Bed by Tedd Arnold

Nina’s connection to Roxaboxen by Alice McLerran

Schema at a Glance

What’s Key for Kids?

■ Readers activate their prior knowledge before, during, and after reading.

■ Readers use schema to make connections between the text and their

lives, between one text and another, and between the text and the

world.

■ Readers distinguish between connections that are meaningful and rel-

evant and those that aren’t.

Chapter 5: Schema

(Left column) Emily’s connection to Amelia Bedelia Goes Camping by Peggy Parish;

(upper right) Whit’s connection to Just Me and My Dad by Mercer Mayer; (lower

right) Chris’s connection to Hansel and Gretel

■ Readers build, change, and revise their schema when they encounter

new information in the text, engage in conversations with others, and

gain personal experience.

■ Readers use their schema to enhance understanding.

(Adapted from Keene and PEBC)

Tried and True Texts for Schema

Fireflies by Julie Brinkloe

Hazel’s Amazing Mother by Rosemary Wells

I Know a Lady by Charlotte Zolotow

Ira Sleeps Over by Bernard Waber

Koala Lou by Mem Fox

My Great-Aunt Arizona by Gloria Houston

Now One Foot, Now the Other by Tomie dePaola

Oliver Button Is a Sissy by Tomie dePaola

The Relatives Came by Cynthia Rylant

Roxaboxen by Alice McLerran

The Snowy Day by Ezra Jack Keats

The Two of Them by Aliki

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Creating

Mental

Images

Madison and Camille

offer greetings and

poems during

Coffeehouse Poetry Day.

Matthew works hard to

create mental images as

he listens to My Father’s

Dragon by Ruth Stiles

Gannet.

he muted trumpet of Miles Davis plays on the CD player, floating

among the voices in the crowded classroom. Hot chocolate sim-

mers in the PTA’s relic of a coffeepot; a mountain of miniature

marshmallows fills a bowl nearby. Long rolls of deep blue paper decorated

with construction paper stars, coffee cups, planets, flowers, hearts, and cres-

cent moons cover the windows and darken the room. Table lamps and tiny

white lights draped from the ceiling provide the only light.

Freshly scrubbed tables are rearranged into cozy groups of two.

Handmade flowers in tiny clay pots, poetry books, bowls of pretzels, and

small containers of words from magnetic poetry kits have replaced crayons,

markers, scissors, sticky notes, pencils, and glue.

Parents and children sit together, munching pretzels and sipping

steamy hot chocolate in mugs brought from home, reading poetry by the

likes of Eloise Greenfield, Maya Angelou, Aileen Fisher, Jane Yolen, Valerie

Worth, and Georgia Heard. But the poems receiving the most enthusiastic

reviews? They’re the ones written by the children themselves, published and

bound into books with enough copies for everyone.

Black is the clothing color of choice; berets adorn the heads of the

truly hip. Starbucks, you say? No way! We’ve transported ourselves back to

the 1960s (ancient history to everyone in the room but me) and it’s

Coffeehouse Poetry Day in Room 104.

It’s time to begin. I know because the sixth child has just asked me

when we’re going to start, and I see numbers seven and eight approaching.

I give Frank a wink and a nod. He walks to the makeshift stage—a table

with two chairs taped on top, a red step stool to get there, and a well-used

microphone gleaned from an enterprising custodian. He climbs the steps

and sings into the microphone, “Everybody listen!” The response is deafen-

ing: “Right now!” Startled parents look up, stunned at their children’s

silence. Finally, they, too, stop talking. This signals Madison to the stage.

Microphone in hand, she begins. “Welcome, parents, children, and

friends, to our Coffeehouse Poetry Day. We’ve been learning how readers

and writers create mental images when they read and write. When we read

our poems, we want you to see if you can create some mental images, too.

Listen and wait for the pictures to come alive in your minds.”

Abby begins. “Hi, everyone! I’m Abby and the title of my poem is

‘Dolphins.’ Dolphins dive / into the ocean. / Flippity flop! / Splishity splash! /

Dolphins never stop. / Twisting, twirling / in the shining sunlight, / all day

long.” One by one, and sometimes in twos, children extend greetings and read

their poems into the microphone. I’m at the ready, turning up the volume of

Miles’s muted trumpet between poems, turning it down as children read.

Reading with Meaning

Icicles

Icicles drip

in the morning light,

and freeze

in the darkness

of the night.

Icicles scream

as if they were talking

to the wind.

Caroline

Trains

Trains rumble over tracks.

Big black tunnels wait.

Dark metal zooms

through the night.

Zach

Henry

When I hold my Guinea Pig

Henry

he makes me feel

safe inside.

Warm fur

red eyes

chubby little body.

Henry is my buddy.

Olivia

The Changes of the World

When winter falls,

it seems like years have passed.

Layers and layers of rock

lay silent

on the stiff, brown ground. I look out

my bedroom window.

It seems like things have changed

in the world,

and people have gotten older.

Zachary

Chapter 6: Creating Mental Images

Hot Tubs

Hot tubs,

steamy bubbles,

powerful jets,

ZOOM like shallow waves

in the ocean.

San Diego hot tubs,

that’s where I want to be!

Griffin

Poppy

I remember my Grandpa.

I used to go everywhere he’d go.

He fixed me really good bacon.

I used to love to sleep next to him.

I really miss my Poppy.

Cory

Space

In space

stars twinkle

in the darkness of night.

Saturn’s rings twirl

and planets swirl

as if they were dancing.

Emily

Sunday Morning on CBS

Football people

race across the field,

leaping to tackle you

to the green and grassy ground.

Devon

Leaves

The leaves

tiptoe to the ground

with only a soft, gentle sound.

We hear the leaves go

crinkle, crackle,

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crunch, crunch

under our feet.

We rake them into a mountain

of red, orange,

yellow, brown and purple.

The leaves

tiptoe to the ground

with only a soft, gentle sound.

Madison and Camille

When you read about Coffeehouse Poetry Day just now, did you find

yourself creating images in your head? Maybe you visualized a classroom

(yours?) with tiny white lights overhead, or pictured twenty-seven children

and their parents dressed in black. Maybe you caught a whiff of the hot

chocolate and heard the notes of a trumpet, or the children’s boisterous

“Right now!” And just maybe you noticed a lump in your throat when you

read Cory’s poem about his Poppy.

When readers create mental images, they engage with text in ways that

make it personal and memorable to them alone. Anchored in prior knowl-

edge, images come from the emotions and all five senses, enhancing under-

standing and immersing the reader in rich detail (Keene and Zimmermann

1997).

In the Beginning: Thinking Aloud

A favorite book for thinking aloud about creating mental images is Night

Sounds, Morning Colors by Rosemary Wells. The inside flap issues an invita-

tion: “Look. Listen. Open all your senses.” Who could resist? Violets laugh

and sing in Mama’s garden, a father hums “Danny Boy” as he tucks his

little boy into bed, a train whistles through the darkness of the night.

“Listen again to the words about the faraway train and its whistle,” I

say to the children during the read-aloud. “When I read those words, such

vivid images, or pictures, come into my mind. I have an image of my

mother, brother, and me streaking across the flatlands of Kansas on a train

called the El Capitán. I see us looking up at the night sky through the sky-

lights above us, my brother and I thinking we could count the stars. I hear

the rumble of the wheels on the tracks, and the porters in their fancy red

and black outfits talking in whispers outside our compartment.

Chapter 6: Creating Mental Images

“Even now I can feel the excitement of going to the dining car for break-

fast. I have images of starched white tablecloths, deep red napkins the size of

my mother’s silk scarves, fragrant fresh flowers in silver vases, and more

knives, forks, and spoons at each setting than one little girl could possibly use.

And the cinnamon rolls! My image of them fills an entire plate, with yummy

white frosting slowly oozing down into little puddles at the bottom.

“Girls and boys, did you notice how creating mental images seemed to

make the text come alive for me? It’s like I was back on the El Capitán,

streaking across the countryside, looking up at the stars, sitting down in

that fancy dining car, and eating those yummy cinnamon rolls all over

again. The page about the train will always be important to me—I’ll always

remember it—because of my connections to it and the images they create

in my mind. Someone else reading the book would have different images,

because that person’s schema is different. No one else, not even my mother

or brother, would remember those train rides the same way I do.”

I take a couple of days with the Wells book, sharing one or two pages

each day and talking about how the images I create enhance my reading

and understanding of the text. On day three, I say to the children, “Lie

down, close your eyes, and listen to the words as I read. Pay attention to the

images that come alive in your mind. Put your thumb up when an image

comes into your head.”

They’re into it. Flat on the floor, eyes scrunched shut, they wait with

anticipation. I read the fish page, and one tiny thumb after another shoots

up, vying for attention. Not only do they see fish weaving in and out of

pagodas, as in the book, but they become fish right before my eyes! Big fish

with bulging eyes, puckered lips, and swishing tails squirm (swim?) around

the meeting area.

A fish named Frank stops midstream and says, “Wait a minute, guys.

What’s a pagoda?” And before I know it, four children try to fashion one

with their bodies. Emily says, “Look, Frank, see? It’s one of those tall

Chinese-like houses—you know, the ones with the curvy roofs? I have one

in my fish tank, and the fish really do swim in and out of the windows and

the doors. Swim through this door right here!” Frank swishes right through.

I think, “Well, Debbie, this isn’t quite what you’d expected, but what’s

happening is a good thing, right? Uh . . . right.” I’m grateful it wasn’t a page

full of tigers.

The page with the birthday cake sends thumbs flying once again.

They can see that birthday cake!

“How many candles are on your cake?” I ask.

“Seven! And they’re burning hot and bright! Ouch! I just touched one!”

Reading with Meaning

“My cake has just one candle, but it’s a big red number three right in

the middle. It’s my baby brother’s cake.”

“The cake in my head is big and round and it has a soccer player on it.

There are words. Let’s see . . . they say [eyes closing tight]—oh! I see them

now!—they say ‘Happy Birthday, Paige’ and ‘You’re Number One!’”

Next I ask, “What kind of cake is in your image?”

“Chocolate!”

“No! Mine’s white with lemon filling, my favorite!”

“Wait! Listen to this! I see an angel food cake with white frosting and

pink and red hearts all over it, and seven purple candles and it tastes deli-

cious!”

“Oohs” and “aahs” and “Are we going to have snack?” and “When’s

lunch?” (two long hours from now) let me know it’s time for a change of

pace.

“Wow, you created some very vivid mental images—I loved all the

details you included,” I tell them. “What did you notice about your images

of the birthday cakes?”

“Everybody saw a different kind of birthday cake!”

“You’re right. They were all different. Why do you suppose that is?”

They chorus as one, “Because our schema is different!”

“Good thinking. I can tell you’re going to be really good at this. One

last thing. Before you go to read, I’m interested in knowing what you’re

thinking about creating mental images so far. Any thoughts? Ideas?

Questions?”

My pencil and notebook are ready. “It’s so much fun!” and “I love

making mental images!” and “Can we practice again tomorrow?” are typical

responses, but Kenta’s thoughts take my breath away. “Well, here’s what I’m

thinking. I’m thinking mental images are sort of like connections, only a lot

bigger. Say a connection is like a kernel of corn. But when you put it in the

microwave and it pops up big and hot, now that’s a mental image. You hear

it and see it and smell it and taste it and love it. That’s what I’m thinking.”

The room is silent; the only sound is that of my pencil furiously writing

to catch every word. Madison asks, “Did you get that exactly, Mrs. Miller?

We should put it up in the room somewhere.” Kenta knows just the spot.

Focusing on just a snippet or two from a picture book or poem allows

children time to practice developing an image completely. Asking questions

like “How many candles are on your cake?” and “What kind is it?” gives

children permission to add details that personalize their images and make

them unique. Books such as Night in the Country by Cynthia Rylant, The

Salamander Room by Anne Mazer, Quiet, Please by Eve Merriam, Say

Chapter 6: Creating Mental Images

Something by Mary Stoltz, The Napping House by Audrey Wood, Creatures of

Earth, Sea, and Sky by Georgia Heard, and anything by Joanne Ryder also

offer rich snippets of text for thinking aloud, thinking through text together,

and getting eye-to-eye and knee-to-knee to talk about mental images.

In addition to picture books, what type of text is best when children

begin to become more adept at making mental images on their own? What

type of text bridges whole-group work and independence? The answer is

poetry. Short, thought-provoking, and full of images, poetry allows even

early readers to navigate the text once it’s been read aloud several times. I’ve

learned that the best decoders aren’t necessarily the most thoughtful readers,

nor are the most thoughtful readers necessarily the best decoders. Asking

children to read and respond to the same text creates additional opportuni-

ties for children with different strengths to listen and learn from each other.

Anchor Lessons

The lessons that follow show how I use a given text to deepen children’s

understanding of the strategy of making mental images. Using poetry and

picture books, children practice creating and adapting images in their

minds, and make them concrete through artistic, dramatic, and written

responses. Children explore how

■ images are created from readers’ schema and words in the text

■ readers create images to form unique interpretations, clarify thinking,

draw conclusions, and enhance understanding

■ readers’ images are influenced by the shared images of others

■ images are fluid; readers adapt them to incorporate new information

as they read

■ evoking vivid mental images helps readers create vivid images in their

writing.

Images are created from readers’ schema and words in the text

(artistic response)

I make ten or so copies of three or four poems I know children will love—

those written by children from previous years are perfect. I think about the

content of the poems I choose. Do children have enough schema for the topic?

Is the text clear? Do the poems lend themselves to unique interpretations?

I read each poem aloud several times, asking children to “listen care-

fully and think about which poem creates the most vivid mental images for

Reading with Meaning

you.” Next I say, “Take a copy of the poem you’ve chosen and a piece of

drawing paper, and find a place you can work well. Read the poem to your-

self a couple of times, then capture the image that’s in your head as best you

can onto paper. Take about ten minutes, then we’ll share our work.”

When children gather to share, I ask those who have chosen the same

poem to sit together, share their images, and talk about what they notice.

After the small groups have shared, I ask children to tell the large group

what they’ve learned. Their words may not change (“Our pictures/images

are different because our schema is different”), but the experience of this

kind of activity helps children anchor their words and give them meaning.

(Figure 6.1 shows some responses as displayed in a classroom.)

Readers create images to form unique interpretations, clarify

thinking, draw conclusions, and enhance understanding

(dramatic response)

While the concepts above are inherent in all the lessons described in this

chapter, dramatizing short pieces of text is another way to engage and teach

Chapter 6: Creating Mental Images

FIGURE 6.1 One class’s mental images

young readers about mental images, as I learned from the fish with the

puckered lips in the Night Sounds, Morning Colors experience.

I ask children to get together in groups of three or four and find a

place where there is enough space for them to work together comfortably. I

tell them, “Close your eyes and listen carefully to the poem I’m about to

read. Pay special attention to the words in the poem and your schema to

create vivid, detailed images.”

I read the poem aloud three or four times and ask children to think

aloud in their groups about the images they’ve created. Next I say, “Put your

thinking together to create a dramatic interpretation of the poem. Think

about things like:

■ What about the poem does your group think is most important?

■ How will you show that?

■ How can everyone be included?”

Books like Martha Robinson’s The Zoo at Night are good choices for

this type of dramatization and interpretation—koalas munch, spider mon-

keys frolic, the hippo floats, and the giant tortoise looks about to see that all

is right with the night. (There are some tiger cubs, but they’re peacefully

cuddling next to their sleeping mother.)

Later, I ask children to share their dramatic interpretations. I ask

each group to talk about why they chose to dramatize the poem the way

they did, focusing on how each group chose to interpret the poem in a

different way, based on their images and what they believed to be most

important.

Children also love to choose their own poems or short pieces of text to

dramatize and present to the group. Sometimes the audience tries to guess

what the poem is about; other times one or two children will read the poem

while others in the group act out their images. Later, when we learn how

readers use dramatic responses to figure out a tricky word (like pagoda) or

understand a puzzling piece of text, children will have had practice with

this type of response.

Readers’ images are influenced by the shared images of others

(artistic response)

I choose Georgia Heard’s poem “Ducks on a Winter Night” because I know

it’s a poem my children have some schema for, yet is sophisticated enough

to require thoughtful interpretation. It reads:

Reading with Meaning

Ducks asleep

on the banks of the pond

tuck their bills

into feathery quills,

making their own beds

to keep warm in.

I write the poem on chart paper, and the children and I read it

together three or four times. We don’t talk much about images or meaning;

I ask children to go to their seats and draw the images they’ve created from

the poem independently. Next, I ask them to share their images with the

person sitting next to them and talk about not only their images, but also

the bit of text that inspired that particular image.

When they finish, I say, “Let’s read the poem again. As we read, pay

attention to your images this time through. After learning about your part-

ner’s image and rereading the text, would you change the image you’ve

drawn in any way? Did your partner’s image change your understanding of

the poem? Did rereading the text change the way you picture it?” After the

children have listened to the poem again, I say, “Go to the other side of

your paper and draw your image as you see it now.”

At their tables, the children share their work. This was a great help for

Nicole. She had originally thought the quills referred to in the poem were

porcupine quills; after a conversation with her partner, Abby, she had a

much better understanding of the poem (see page 89).

Images are fluid; readers adapt them to incorporate new

information as they read (artistic response)

Up until now, most lessons I’ve described have focused on creating detailed

images in response to a poem or a short piece of text. These types of images

aren’t the kind that change much once they’ve been created. But with Jane

Yolen’s book Greyling, I show children how readers’ mental images can be

fluid, that they can change to incorporate new information.

Greyling is the story of a fisherman and his wife who live in a moss-

covered hut by the sea, longing for nothing more than a child of their own.

One day the fisherman finds a small grey seal stranded on a sandbar. But

this is no regular seal. . . .

The first day, without showing children the pictures, I read aloud the

first half of the book, quickly sketching some of my most vivid images on

sticky notes and thinking aloud about how they change as I continue to

Chapter 6: Creating Mental Images

read and learn more about the story. When I finish, I place them on the

dry-erase board.

“Let’s take another look at my images,” I say. “Do you see how they

changed as I kept reading? Here I have an image of a seal in the fisherman’s

arms, and in this sketch my image of the seal has changed into a little boy.

As I continue to read, the images in my head continue to change, too. Do

you see?”

“Is it kind of like a movie going on inside your head?” Madison asks. I

tell her it’s exactly like that. “Tomorrow,” I tell the children, “I’ll read the

rest of the story and you’ll have a chance to see what it’s like to have a movie

going on inside your head, and do some sketching, too.”

The next day, the children bring a clipboard and a pencil to the meet-

ing area. I give them a record sheet divided into fourths and headed

“Adapting mental images during reading.” I reread the first half of the book,

showing children the pictures this time through. When we get to where we

left off the day before, I say, “Now I’m going to read you the rest of the story.

I’m not going to show you the pictures right now; I want you to listen to the

words and keep track of how the images in your mind change as I continue

to read. I’ll read a while, then stop, giving you time to sketch your images.

When we finish, we’ll take a look to see how you’ve adapted your images to

include new information in the text. Are you ready?”

Figure 6.2 shows one child’s response to this exercise.

Evoking vivid mental images helps readers create vivid images

in their writing (artistic/written response)

A wonderful consequence of teaching mental images in reading is the effect

it has on children’s writing. I learned this the day I asked children to draw

their images as they listened to a nature CD called Mountain Streams. The

peaceful sounds filled every corner of the room, and the rich details in the

children’s drawings caught me by surprise. Orange and pink sunsets, rush-

ing waterfalls, meandering streams, and black-sky thunderstorms covered

their sheets of paper.

Just as I’m about to ask children to come up front to share their

images, Kenta skips over and whispers in my ear, “My table thinks we

should write about our mental images, too. Can we? Please?” I tell him it’s a

brilliant idea and ask him to make an announcement to find out what the

rest of the class thinks. They’re with him! (And to think I almost missed the

boat on this one. . . .)

Children who couldn’t seem to get past writing about loving Mom,

Dad, brothers, sisters, grandmas, grandpas, dogs, cats, me, trips to the park,

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and birthday parties at McDonald’s are now writing about cool summer

breezes, cabins off in the distance, and swooshing waterfalls splashing their

faces with tears. Shawnda writes, “The rushing wind rolls across the Rocky

Mountain heights. The stream squiggles down the mountain.” And

Mitchell, whose topic of choice usually has something to do with monsters,

writes, “The golden sun sets behind the purple mountains in flashes of pink

and red.” As more and more children share, I say, “Guys—your writing is

unbelievable today! Your images are so clear, and your words—they sound

like poetry! Do you hear what I hear?” Their beaming faces and exuberant

nods tell me they do. “So what do you think happened? What made the dif-

ference today?”

They attribute their brilliance to the peacefulness, to the beautiful

sounds that helped them get ideas, and to the images they created in their

minds. I attribute their brilliance to all those things, too, but I know there’s

more to it. They’re writing beautifully because the stage has been set for

them. They’ve been creating images in different contexts for three or four

weeks now; I’ve taught them about detail. They’ve been listening to and

reading poems and stories with beautiful language for three or four weeks,

Chapter 6: Creating Mental Images

FIGURE 6.2 Whitney’s changing mental images for Greyling by Jane Yolen

too; I’ve taught them about rich words. And now they’re putting all that

learning into yet another context: writing. It’s probably no surprise we

launch into poetry during this study—or that music is now a ritual in our

writers’ workshop.

Reading with Meaning

■ Evidence of Understanding and Independence

Maggie’s mental image from Stuart Little by E. B. White

“My Dad always says

I’m daydreaming, but

that’s not the right

word. I’m making

mental images and

connecting them

together. I’m not day-

dreaming, I tell him,

I’m thinking.”

Cory

“When my Mom reads

me Harry Potter, it’s

like I have a paint set

inside my brain. And

I never run out of

paint!”

Ben

“Yesterday I was ski-

ing so fast I just knew

I was in for a major

wipeout, and then I

made a mental image

of what I should do. I

could see me curving

to slow down in my

head, and then I just

Chapter 6: Creating Mental Images

did it in real life! My

feet started curving. It

really helped me!”

Andrew

One day I was telling

children how I some-

times listen to Bronco

games on the radio

when I’m driving. I

told them about how I

create images in my

mind as the announcer

describes the action on

the field and how it

makes the game a lot

more interesting and

memorable for me. At

the end of the story,

Nina raised her hand.

“Mrs. Miller, there’s

just one thing I don’t

get. How do you drive

with your eyes closed?”

Dear Debbie,

I started reading Whit

The Lion, the Witch,

and the Wardrobe

several nights ago

because he had gotten

a little sample of a

chapter of it from an

annotated youth ver-

sion with Carol in the

doctor’s office waiting

room. We borrowed

Thad’s paperback copy

Sheldon’s mental image from Little Bear by Else Holmelund Minarik

Olivia’s mental image from Flossie and the Fox by Patricia McKissack

Reading with Meaning

Emily’s mental image from Snow White and Rose Red retold by Barbara Cooney

Brendan’s mental image from Dogs in Space by Nancy Coffelt

and read the first

chapter, which he

seemed to soak up

well. The only illustra-

tions in the book,

however, are very

small and simple

pen-and-ink sketches

covering maybe one-

fourth of the first page

of each chapter. After

we finished the first

chapter, Whit hungrily

thumbed through the

pages until he came to

the start of each

chapter, looked at the

sketch, and asked me

to read him the name

of the chapter so he

could try and figure

out what was going to

happen in the story.

Since this was the first

chapter book with

minimal illustrations

I’d ever read to Whit,

I apologized for the

lack of illustrations

and suggested maybe

we could look in the

library for a version of

the book that had

more pictures. Whit

kind of gave a sigh,

and then said in a

slightly condescending

tone, “No, Dad. Don’t

you think we can

Chapter 6: Creating Mental Images

make mental images

as we read the story?”

Thanks for the

great year Whit is

having!

Hunt Walker

Conferring is often the

best window into chil-

dren’s thinking. The

things they say and the

creative ways they find

to apply their learning

leave me shaking my

head and smiling in

amazement, as in the

following conferences

with Frank and

Grace, Daniel, and

Kenta.

“Hey, Frank,” I say,

“h o w’ s Little Bear

going for you today?”

“It’s great!” he

answers. “And you

know what? When I

am reading Little

Bear, I can just put

me right in the story.

I’m doing what Little

Bear is doing. When I

turn the page, it’s like

someone else is turning

the page. See right

here? When Little

Bear says, ‘I’m cold,’

I’m cold, too—freezing

Colten’s mental image from I Was Walking Down the Road by Sarah Barchas

Nicole shows how she changed her thinking after conferring with Abby

Reading with Meaning

Abby’s mental image from Ice Stars by S. A. Kramer

cold! I’m really shiver-

ing, see?” “You do look

cold!” I say, as I wonder

to myself, “Those

couldn’t be real goose

bumps on his arms,

could they?”

At this point Grace,

who sits across from

Frank, overhears us.

“Frank, listen to this,”

she says. “My mental

images are sort of like

that, but not exactly.

It’s like I’m inside the

book, like you say, but

the book characters

don’t notice me. I’m

part of what’s happen-

ing, but I’m invisible.

Are you invisible, too,

or does Little Bear see

you?”

“Oh he definitely

sees me, and I see him.

It’s kind of like Little

Bear and I are brothers.

When Mother Bear

made snow pants for

Little Bear, she gave

them to me, too! And

you know what else? I

can pop out of one

character and into

another if I want.

Little Bear’s image

just pulls me in, and

I’m not at school any-

more. I’m in his life.”

■■■

FIGURE 6.3 Kenta’s mental image from Stars and Planets edited by David Levy

Mental Images at a Glance

What’s Key for Kids?

■ Proficient readers create mental images during and after reading.

These images come from all five senses and the emotions and are

anchored in the reader’s prior knowledge.

■ Proficient readers understand how creating images enhances compre-

hension.

■ Proficient readers use images to draw conclusions, create unique

interpretations of the text, recall details significant to the text, and

recall a text after it has been read.

Chapter 6: Creating Mental Images

“Hi, Daniel,” I say. “Tell me about what you’re doing over here in the corner.” It looks to

me like he’s covering entire pages with Post-it notes, but I’m willing to listen.

“I’m covering up all the pictures with Post-its because I want to make my own mental

images. These aren’t very good. I know that’s not what billy goats really look like, and see

this troll? Trolls only have one eye and wouldn’t wear clothes like that!”

“So you’re saying your schema about billy goats and trolls is different from the illustra-

tor’s?” I ask him.

Daniel nods yes. “I have lots more schema for billy goats and trolls. See my images?”

“I see what you mean about the one big eye,” I say, “and the clothes, too. Your images

really are different!”

“Oh,” he says, “remember when Ben brought in that picture of Hagrid from Harry

Potter and had a big fit because Hagrid didn’t look like Ben’s image? It’s kind of like the

same thing!”

Kenta wildly motions to me across the room, jumping in and out of his seat. “Look at

this!” he says as he points to a picture in the book Stars and Planets edited by David Levy,

a small diagram illustrating how Earth’s seasons change. “I really get what you mean about

making mental images now! I kept looking at this picture and I didn’t get it at all. But

then I saw these arrows, and I made it move in my mind! The earth is turning around the

sun, and I can see leaves for fall, and snow coming in the winter, and beautiful-smelling

flowers in spring, and the hot sun in summer, with people in shorts, all happy and stuff.

Here’s my mental image of it! See how the sun hits different parts of the earth at different

times of the year?” (Figure 6.3 shows Kenta’s drawing.)

■ Images from reading frequently become part of the reader’s writing.

■ Readers use images to immerse themselves in rich detail as they read.

The detail gives depth and dimension to the reading, engaging the

reader more deeply and making the text more memorable.

■ Readers adapt their images in response to the shared images of other

readers.

■ Readers adapt their images as they continue to read. Images are

revised to incorporate new information in the text and new interpre-

tations as developed by the reader.

■ Evoking mental images helps readers create images in writing.

(Adapted from Keene and PEBC)

Tried and True Texts for Mental Images

Close Your Eyes by Jean Marzollo

Color Me a Rhyme by Jane Yolen

Creatures of Earth, Sea, and Sky by Georgia Heard

Footprints and Shadows by Anne Westcott Dodd

Goodnight to Annie by Eve Merriam

Greyling by Jane Yolen

I Am the Ocean by Suzanna Marshak

Mountain Streams (compact disc)

The Napping House by Audrey Wood

Night in the Country by Cynthia Rylant

Night Sounds, Morning Colors by Rosemary Wells

Putting the World to Sleep by Shelley Moore Thomas

Quiet, Please by Eve Merriam

The Salamander Room by Anne Mazer

Say Something by Mary Stoltz

What Does the Rain Play? by Nancy White Carlstrom

When I’m Sleepy by Jane R. Howard

Wild, Wild Sunflower Child by Nancy White Carlstrom

The Zoo at Night by Martha Robinson

Reading with Meaning

Digging

Deeper

Children make

predictions based on

personal experience.

Christopher thinking his

way through Judy

Donnelly’s The Titanic

Lost and Found.

pples, carrots, and yogurt are back in our lunches. Holiday cookies,

cakes, and candies are thankfully long gone, along with the mugs

that sing while you sip, the very large reindeer pins with blinking

noses, and the lovely red sweatshirts with every child’s name written in glit-

ter. It’s time to get down to business.

“Can you believe it’s January already?” we ask each other in the halls.

“How can that be,” we wonder, “when we have so much left to teach?”

We’re afraid we’ll never get to everything. And we’re right—we won’t.

In our hearts we know we couldn’t even if we tried. We stop to remind

ourselves of conversations in faculty meetings, on the stairs, and in the

parking lot. We remind ourselves that we believe in depth over breadth; we

believe that teaching a few things well makes more sense than teaching

many things superficially. And we resolve to continue to do what we believe

is best for our kids, our school, and ourselves.

So what’s next? By now children know all about thinking about their

thinking. They’re ready to learn how to engage in deeper, more thoughtful

conversations with others and respond to text in ways that increase their

capacity for understanding. Now is the time to build on what has come

before.

Over the past few months, children have come to know each other

well. They know about each other’s interests, special talents, and little idio-

syncrasies. They know that Adam is the dinosaur expert, Thad is fascinated

with JFK, and Paige is a standout soccer player. They’ve been outraged by

the bullies in Oliver Button Is a Sissy, sipped hot chocolate together on

Coffeehouse Poetry Day, and have had experiences working in a variety of

large and small groups. They have history.

And because they do, the time is right for increasing the sophistication

of the read-alouds, showing them how to engage in more challenging dia-

logue and making connections from our past experiences to more in-depth

learning.

Taking the Conversation Deeper

It’s one thing to share thinking and listen respectfully, and quite another to

listen actively and respond thoughtfully to others in order to understand

another’s point of view and/or inform one’s own. Now is the time to teach

children the difference. It’s no longer enough for me to ask, “So what are

you thinking, Daniel? And Madison? And Frank? And Molly?” Continuing

Reading with Meaning

to elicit individual responses without focusing or connecting them does

little to extend the conversation, take it deeper, or enhance understanding.

I explain to the children that because they’ve gotten so good at think-

ing out loud and listening to each other, they’re ready to learn how to listen

and learn together in new ways. “You know how readers make connections

from the books they read to their lives, other books, and the world?” I ask

them. “When readers talk together about books, they make connections

from the thinking of others to their own thinking, too. Whether it’s to bet-

ter understand a tricky part of text or talk about a favorite page, thoughtful

readers engage in dialogue to better understand books and each other.”

The strategies of questioning and inferring are particularly helpful in

teaching children how to take the conversation deeper. Asking children to

choose a burning question from a chart we’ve created together, or posing an

open-ended question myself and working with them to infer meaning is a

perfect way to get started. The question serves to focus the dialogue; show-

ing children how to collaborate to infer answers, solve problems, and con-

struct meaning comes next.

Modeling, naming what I do and what I notice the children doing, and

guiding them as needed gets us started. Children aren’t raising their hands

now. I want them to learn how real conversation flows; I want them to learn

how to get it going, keep it going, and take it deeper. I teach children to ask

themselves the following questions before joining a conversation:

■ Does what I have to say connect to the question or topic?

■ Can I connect what I have to say to what someone else has said?

■ Can I support what I have to say? What evidence or personal experi-

ence do I have to make my point?

■ Has someone else already said what I am about to say?

■ If I am speaking to disagree, can I state what I heard the other person

say and explain how and why my thinking is different in a nice way?

■ Does what I want to say take the conversation deeper?

Talking through a text together, working in small groups, getting eye-

to-eye and knee-to-knee, and participating in the sharing and the regularly

scheduled book clubs allow children to practice and learn the art of collab-

oration. Whether it’s working on an issue on the playground, problem solv-

ing in math, hypothesizing in science, or answering a question in reading,

children are up to the challenge when we show them how.

I admit it sounds a bit daunting, but year after year I’ve listened and

watched as children work and learn together in ways that exceeded my

Chapter 7: Digging Deeper

expectations. So . . . expect brilliance. Model well and model often. Pay

attention to detail. Trust yourself and your kids. You won’t be disappointed!

Book Clubs for Primary Kids?

It was a speaker at a literacy conference in Denver who inspired me to

introduce book clubs to six- and seven-year-olds. She spoke about the rich

discussions that were possible for children in the intermediate grades.

“What about primary kids?” I asked her (in my head). “Just because

children aren’t yet fluent readers doesn’t mean they can’t think and talk

about books in meaningful ways.”

I knew then and there that book clubs would soon be coming to my class-

room. I’d always wondered how children would talk about books if I weren’t

there. Would they respond in the same ways they did in the large group?

Would they use the same language? Would they talk about their connections,

images, questions, and inferences? Maybe book clubs could help me find out.

Over the next few weeks I hatched a plan. I realized that while I still

wanted to learn more about how children were applying their learning,

more than anything else I wanted to provide a time and place for them to

engage in active, lively conversation about books and ideas—without a pre-

set agenda. Giving children ongoing opportunities to get together by them-

selves simply to enjoy books and engage in the social nature of learning

became my primary goal.

I thought about the book clubs I’d been in over the years. There were

the professional ones, where we read only work-related texts. There was the

neighborhood one, where we read best-sellers. And there was the one where

women’s angst reigned supreme.

I thought about my current book club, now in its fifth year. What was

it about this one that kept us coming back? I thought it had to do with the

diversity of the group and the diversity of the kinds of books we read. The

group includes men and women, teachers and stonecutters, journalists,

accountants, businesspeople, brokers, and more. Our reading reflects our

individual and collective interests. We keep coming back because while we

mostly talk about books, we talk about other things, too. We gain new

insights, challenge old perspectives, and sometimes feel we’ve solved the

problems of the world. (And then there’s the food. . . .)

How can I transport this same kind of spirit into the classroom? I

wondered. First, I knew that the kids needed to see and hear what I was

Reading with Meaning

talking about. They needed to see a book club like mine in action. To that

end, I recruited four parents I knew well—two moms and two dads—and

explained what I was after. With only a little arm twisting, they agreed to

model a book club with me. I gave them each a copy of Where the Wild

Things Are along with some sticky notes, and we set a date. It worked so

well that I now convene a model book club each year.

On the specified day, we sit in a circle on the floor, with the children

sitting in a bigger circle around us. We chat a bit, pass around a snack of

animal crackers, and begin talking about the book. (Don’t worry—parents

never lack for words. One time they went on for thirty minutes just talking

about connections! By then the children had themselves become wild

things, and I was ready to set sail myself.)

I ask the kids to watch and listen carefully to what the adults do and

say. Afterward I write down their observations on chart paper and hang it

on the wall near where their own book clubs will meet. The children

observe the adults

■ working together to figure out answers to questions

■ taking turns talking

■ asking questions

■ laughing

■ rereading parts of the book

■ making connections from the book to our lives and other books

■ inferring

■ working together to understand

Children choose their books for the book club from those we’ve read

aloud and discussed previously. That way, they all can discuss books that are

sophisticated enough to warrant thoughtful conversation; knowing how to

read the book is not a requirement. Multiple copies are kept together in a

small bookshelf next to where the book clubs meet.

At first I wondered if having heard and discussed a book before might

dampen the children’s enthusiasm, but it seems to have just the opposite

effect. Their familiarity with the text seems to jump-start the conversation,

giving children the confidence they need when the focus of the talk shifts to

new issues and ideas.

I meet briefly with each group the day before their book club meets and

read the text aloud again; children follow along in individual copies. I ask

them to bring sticky notes and/or their notebooks with them to the read-

aloud so that they can prepare for the next day’s discussion by marking the

text or otherwise making notes.

Chapter 7: Digging Deeper

Favorite books include the following:

Amazing Grace by Mary Hoffman

An Angel for Solomon Singer by Cynthia Rylant

Grandfather Twilight by Barbara Berger

How Many Days to America? by Eve Bunting

The Lotus Seed by Sherry Garland

The Magic Fish by Freya Littledale

Oliver Button Is a Sissy by Tomie dePaola

Sleeping Ugly by Jane Yolen

The Table Where Rich People Sit by Byrd Baylor

The Titanic Lost and Found by Judy Donnelly

Tut’s Mummy Lost and Found by Judy Donnelly

Wild, Wild Wolves by Joyce Milton

William’s Doll by Charlotte Zolotow

Over the years I’ve collected multiple copies of my own, but libraries can

help you acquire the copies you need.

Because I want to ensure a mix of boys, girls, interests, and reading

abilities, I group children accordingly, four or five per group. One book

club meets each week during independent reading time. This gives children

a chance to participate every five weeks or so. They meet at a low, round

table in the classroom while the rest of us read and confer. Book clubs last

anywhere from fifteen to thirty minutes. When the children finish, they

reflect aloud on how things went, choose their next book, and rejoin their

classmates in readers’ workshop.

Are children able to talk together about books and ideas independ-

ently and in meaningful ways? Do they talk about their connections,

images, questions, and inferences? Yes! And I’ve come to think I know why.

Their knowledge of the language and strategies that readers use propels

them into lively conversations as they discuss issues and ideas, gain new

insights, and challenge old perspectives. Who knows? One day they might

solve the world’s problems!

Making Thinking Visible

Once I gave up the basal reader, it took awhile to figure out what kids

should be doing instead of those neatly stapled stacks of worksheets. I

Reading with Meaning

thought that surely they needed to do something when they finished reading

a book. But what? Design book jackets? Draw a picture of their favorite

part? Make puppets of the book’s characters? Rewrite endings? My kids did

all these things—and loved every minute.

But my colleagues and I began to notice that while it took children ten

minutes to read a book, it could take them thirty minutes to design a book

jacket. And for what? Most likely it would wind up on a bulletin board

underneath a snappy heading. It dawned on me that these activities were

keeping children from doing what we know helps them learn to read best:

reading.

If readers’ workshop is all about real reading, it must be about

responding in real ways, too. Nowadays when children in my class respond

to their reading, the focus is on what they’re thinking and learning.

Nowadays the purpose of their response is to enhance understanding. And

those time-consuming projects? They’ve gone the way of the worksheets.

Teaching children how to use a variety of open-ended responses helps

them remember their thinking as they read, heightens their awareness of

the strategy being taught, and lets us (and them) know how well they’re able

to apply it independently. Ultimately, when that little voice in a child’s head

says, “What? I don’t get this!” responses that focus on thinking and learning

can help change that voice to “Oh, I get it now!”

What are the kinds of responses that focus and engage young readers,

helping them hold on to their thinking and enhance understanding? Which

ones show the children and me how they’re applying a strategy and what

they’re learning and thinking? And which ones are the most universal, able

to be used across strategies and throughout the day? Options for response

are many, but the following are those I use and teach most consistently:

■ Sticky notes. This is probably what kids use most. Keeping track of

your thinking on sticky notes is a lot like writing in the margins or

highlighting text in your own book. The uses of sticky notes are

almost limitless—children use them to record strategy use, draw

images, make and confirm predictions, form opinions, think their

way through a text, and on and on.

■ Notebook entries. I teach children to use their notebooks because of

their accessibility and versatility, both at school and at home.

Notebooks are great for both written and artistic responses. I some-

times ask children to bring their notebooks to a read-aloud to help

them keep track of their thinking, record their questions, determine

important learning and ideas, synthesize information, and so on.

Chapter 7: Digging Deeper

■ Two-column notes. Almost as versatile as sticky notes and notebooks,

a two-column setup for notes is also open-ended and can be used in a

variety of ways. For example, one column might be headed “Quote

from text” and the other, “My thinking”; “I learned”/“I wonder”;

“Quote from text”/“My image”; and the like.

■ Venn diagrams. These are useful when comparing relationships

between pairs of characters, authors, types of text, strategies, and even

such specific things as meteors, comets, and asteroids.

■ Webs. These are useful in “putting it all out on the table” in the

process of answering questions, determining important ideas, draw-

ing inferences, and forming conclusions.

■ Story maps. These are useful in helping children understand how

story elements work together to create meaning.

I teach children how and when to use each response one at a time. I

take my time introducing each one, waiting for just the moment a particu-

lar approach will be the most helpful and make the most sense, when the

experience might be anchored in the child’s mind. That way, when kids

encounter similar problems in their own reading, they will connect their

current situation to the earlier experience.

Teaching children a new way to respond is not unlike teaching a new

strategy. Once I’ve modeled the response, I need to provide opportunities

for children to gradually assume responsibility for its use. In addition to

asking them to work through a new response option in small groups and

pairs, I sometimes ask them to bring clipboards and pencils to the meeting

area, where they’ll practice using the response in the course of a read-aloud.

This way, their focus can be on listening to the story and using the response

rather than having to be responsible for reading the text, too. When chil-

dren experience and understand the purpose of each response, it becomes

easier for them to apply it in their own reading in purposeful ways.

When teaching children how to respond in a new way, I want them to

understand that this is now another option, or tool, they can use to help

themselves make sense of their reading; it’s another technique they can add

to those they already know. I want the children to understand how to use

each type of response flexibly, to adapt the responses in ways that are most

useful, and most important, to create their own ways of building under-

standing.

For example, after teaching children how to use story maps to identify

important information in fiction, I moved into showing them how to iden-

tify the key ideas, or themes, in stories. Olivia was puzzled. She brought me

Reading with Meaning

100

the story map form and said, “Where’s the place for the theme? I think it

should be on here somewhere.” When I asked her where, she didn’t hesitate.

I incorporated her suggestion on the form that night (Figure 7.1).

Looking closely at children’s responses, conferring, listening carefully,

and taking notes about what they have to say throughout the day give me a

clear indication of where they are as learners, both independently and as a

group. I learn which children need more individual or small-group support,

and which ones are ready to move forward into more challenging or differ-

ent types of text.

Taking the Learning Deeper

It’s the last forty minutes of the day—work activity time in Room 104. As I

take a minute to stand back and reflect, I’m struck by the realization that at

this very moment, not one child is calling my name, tugging at my sleeve,

or tapping my shoulder. I take the opportunity to pick up my notebook,

find a corner, and take a closer look.

101

Chapter 7: Digging Deeper

FIGURE 7.1 Olivia’s suggestion for the story map form

I love what I see. Perched on my grandmother’s small spindle rocker,

Olivia is reading aloud from Oliver Button Is a Sissy by Tomie dePaola.

Whitney, Jaron, Daniel, and Tate sit cross-legged in a semicircle below her,

their fingers following along in copies of the book as she reads. Shoulders

straight and legs crossed, Olivia stops reading and puts the book in her lap.

“Now here’s what I’m wondering right now,” she says in a voice

vaguely familiar. “On this page, where the boys took Oliver Button’s shoes

and wouldn’t give them back, I just keep wondering, why would they do

that? Why do you think they would do that?”

She’s drawn a questioning web on the dry-erase board and written,

“Why would they do that?” in the circle at the center. “Maybe they’re just

jealous of him,” Whitney volunteers. “Well, that could be it,” Olivia

responds, as she writes Whitney’s response on the web. “What do the rest of

you think about that?”

I’d love to know what the rest of them think about that, but Chris

catches my eye across the room. Surrounded by a stack of volcano books,

he’s glued about a mile of red yarn on top of a volcano he’s made from

brown construction paper, and now he’s taping six long pages of writing,

end to end, to the volcano’s base. Titled “Pompeii Buried Alive!” his piece

begins, “A large cloud appeared over the volcano. WOW! I can see the ashes

falling on the people and the houses in my head. That had to hurt. . . .”

In another part of the room, Sunny, Paige, Grace, Brodie, Frankie, and

Torin are preparing for their play, which was inspired by the book Heckedy

Peg by Audrey Wood. Copies of the text, along with fabric, thread, needles,

paper, staplers, scissors, markers, and glue cover the tabletop as they work

to create costumes, props, tickets, scripts, a program, and signs.

The Lego kids are busy, too. Mitchell’s building a deinonychus for his

dinosaur research (“How can deinonychus run so fast?”) and Thad’s creat-

ing a model of the Texas School Book Depository Building. He’s fascinated

with JFK and is preparing for a class he’ll be teaching this time tomorrow.

Five kids and I have signed up already, and he’s asked us in writing to bring

notebooks, pencils, and “all your questions.”

Maggie, Bret, Nina, and Madi are trying to figure out how they can

adapt their Irish step dancing moves to the tune “Rockin’ Robin,” and right

behind them Meghan, Nicole, and Caroline are working on their dog

research. They’ve stuffed their notebooks full of dog poems, pictures, notes,

and observations, real examples of dog biscuits and treats, and photographs

of dogs they know. Today, according to plan, they’ve brought in samples of

hair from all those dogs they know and are sorting them into plastic bags

and labeling each bag with a permanent marker.

Reading with Meaning

102

Whit and Frank are building “Little Bear World” out of wooden

blocks, and just outside the room a small chorus of girls and boys are

singing their way through their three-ring binders. The binders are filled

with copies of the songs we’ve learned so far, and the children are on the

fourth, with about twenty more to go. Cory, Madison, and Kenta gingerly

sidestep them on their way out to the playground for gravel and sand. We

read Where Are You Going, Manyoni? by Catherine Stock earlier and they’re

intent on creating Tobwani Dam in an old aquarium.

I smile as I watch them, remembering the raised eyebrows of those

who earlier in the year wondered how in the world I could find the time to

let children “just play”—and every day, too, for goodness’ sake.

Work Activity Time

In the beginning of the year, children use work activity time to investigate

and explore the materials in the classroom. I explain the options they will

have during this part of the day and trust them to make good choices.

Together, we work to create the expectations and procedures we will follow.

It’s a time for building relationships and establishing community, playing

together and making new friends, practicing being thoughtful and respect-

ful to each other, and learning the art of sharing a room and everything in

it with twenty-six other people.

And it’s the perfect time for children to synthesize and apply their

learning in new contexts, either independently or with their peers; it’s the

time when children can put into practice what they’ve learned during other

parts of the day. But before we can expect the Tobwani Dams, Little Bear

Worlds, and classes on JFK, children need time to explore, investigate, and

yes, play.

They need time to build with blocks, draw, paint, cut and paste, play

with clay, make beaded necklaces, finger-knit friendship bracelets, sew, take

care of the animals, and listen to stories. They need time to read and write,

listen to music, sing and dance, play school, do experiments, work with

magnetic letters, and play board games like Sorry, checkers, and chess.

I don’t worry about who goes where, for how long, or how many are

already there. There are no sign-ups, rotations, or elaborate plans for chil-

dren to fill out. I simply ask them where they’d like to go and what they’d

like to do, and remind them of what we’ve learned about being respectful

and thoughtful to each other and the materials in the classroom.

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Chapter 7: Digging Deeper

The principles that guide my work throughout the rest of the day

guide my work here, too. Just as in readers’ and writers’ workshop, provid-

ing time, choice, a variety of materials for a wide range of responses, and a

predictable structure children can count on allows the unpredictable to

happen. If I want to challenge children’s imagination, promote their love of

learning and inquiry, and encourage them to become independent learners

and thinkers, they need to be the ones deciding where they’ll go and what

they’ll do.

And if I’m patient, one fine day someone will think to paint an image

from a poem they’ve written or read, or start a dinosaur book club, or create

a cutaway of Earth out of clay. One fine day someone will ask a question

about the whereabouts of our missing frog and write a note to everyone to

help him infer where it might have gone. And one fine day someone may

choose to make a chart that synthesizes her learning about Planet X.

When that day comes, I shout it from the rooftops. I ask the child to

share his work, and when he’s finished, I say, “How did you come up with

such a good idea?” I let everyone know how making connections from what

they already know to another situation or time of day is a brilliant thing to

do. And because it happens every year, I know that the share circle will soon

be filled with other kids who have plenty of brilliant ideas of their own!

Children’s talk changes from “I want to make pizzas out of clay” to “I

want to make the planets out of clay and put them in order from the sun.

And then I want to share it with the kindergartners.” Once children begin

to integrate their learning into their play, the materials are no longer an end

unto themselves; they’ve become another means for creating understanding

and constructing meaning. They’ve become a means for living the learning.

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104

105

Inferring

Created during work

activity time, these

posters show how

children apply their

learning in new settings

and situations.

“So what are you

inferring this is about?”

ory and Whit rush into the classroom minutes before the bell. They

scurry over to a corner, where Cory plunks down his backpack and

takes out what looks to be a cell phone. “See, Whit? Here it is. My

mom says it’s broken, but I’m inferring we can fix it!” Out of the corner of

my eye I watch them turn it over and over, furiously pushing buttons,

pulling the antennae out and pushing it back in, checking the batteries, lis-

tening for a dial tone.

To their surprise (and mine), the phone begins to make a strange

beeping sound. “See? I just knew it!” Cory says. “It just needs a little some-

thing. Go get a magnifying glass, quick!” They methodically examine every

inch (centimeter?) of the phone. But no amount of close examination ren-

ders them a dial tone. The beeping stops. “Well, Whit,” Cory says softly, “at

least we tried.”

“Cory,” Whit pleads, “we can’t give up yet. Oh—wait! I know!” He

races over to the basket of two-column note forms and grabs one. “We can

infer what’s wrong with it!” he says. “Let’s put our thinking together. I’ll

draw the phone on this side, and you write our thinking over here. This is

going to be a huge infer! When we figure it out, let’s show Mrs. Miller!

She’ll go crazy for this!” (They were right—see Figure 8.1.)

The children have been learning about the ways readers (and telephone

repairmen) infer for about four weeks. When I think about how far the kids

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106

FIGURE 8.1 Cory and Whit’s two-column notes on the phone

have come, I realize it’s because I’ve come a long way, too. I remember when

I wasn’t even sure what inferring was, let alone how to go about teaching it.

I think back to the day when ten of us were scrunched into the old

book room at University Park Elementary, where PEBC staff developer

Chryse Hutchins was leading an after-school discussion on teaching infer-

ring to our first and second graders. “So what’s everybody thinking?” she

asks us. We love Chryse, but the room is freezing. We think those might be

snowflakes outside the window. And we don’t really feel like thinking.

Chryse knows all about wait time, but so do we. Undeterred, she asks, “So

how is inferring going in your classrooms? Who would like to share what

you’ve been doing?” Kristin and I exchange glances. Should we tell?

Kristin gives me a silent kick. I take the cue. I’ll tell. “Well, Chryse,

I’m confused, actually. Kristin and I have been having this ongoing discus-

sion about inferring, and we’ve been wondering things like, well, what does

it mean to infer? At first we thought it was about predicting, but if a child

makes a prediction and confirms it a page later, is that really an inference,

or just a simple prediction?” We think inferring is bigger than predicting,

but we’re not sure.

This conversation took place early in our work with Chryse, and we

were surprised to learn that she wasn’t sure about the difference either. And

she was smart enough to admit it to us. As with the best staff developers,

Chryse was one of the first to engage us in conversations in which we all

participated in the learning. So what is inferring? Prediction is a piece of it,

but our hunches were right: there is more to it. Inferring, according to

Anderson and Pearson (1984) is the heart of meaning construction for

learners of all ages. What follows are some key considerations and anchor

lessons on inferring that put theory into practice. When readers infer, they

use their prior knowledge and textual clues to draw conclusions and form

unique interpretations of text.

Anchor Lessons

Readers determine meanings of unknown words by using their

schema, paying attention to textual and picture clues, rereading,

and engaging in conversations with others

A book like Where Are You Going, Manyoni? by Catherine Stock is perfect

for teaching children about inferring at the word level. Set on the Limpopo

River in a dry, sparsely settled area in Zimbabwe, it’s the story of a little girl

107

Chapter 8: Inferring

who passes through the veld on her way to school. Along the way, she skips

past shady kloofs, red sandstone koppies, acacia and baobab trees, foraging

bushpigs, and malala palms, all of which offer opportunities for authentic

modeling of how to infer meanings of unknown words.

On the first day, I read aloud the first few pages, thinking aloud about

the meanings of words like baobab, Limpopo, and bushpig. On the page with

the baobab tree, I say, “Hmmm. Baobab tree? What kind of tree is that? I

think I’ve heard the word baobab, but I’m pretty sure I’ve never seen a tree

by that name. I’m going to reread this page. Let’s see, it talks about the

great, grey baobab tree. I think great means big in this sentence. When I look

at the picture, there’s a huge tree that is greyish. See this one? I’m inferring

that it is the baobab tree.”

After modeling several other words in much the same way, I say,

“Think a minute about what you just saw and heard me doing to infer the

meanings of words I didn’t understand. What did you notice?” Children

noticed I was

■ rereading

■ paying attention to the words

■ looking closely at the pictures

■ using my schema

■ taking my time

■ thinking really hard

“Good noticing!” I tell them. “Now it’s your turn. Listen carefully as I

read, and if you hear a word you don’t understand, raise your hand and we’ll

work together to infer its meaning.” I read about halfway through the book,

and along the way we infer the meaning of forages, pan, and kloof. We record

our thinking on a chart entitled “What can you do to help yourself figure

out the meaning of an unknown word?” The chart is divided into three sec-

tions, headed “Word,” “What we infer it means,” and “What helped us?”

The next day we talk about what we remember and what we learned

from our work the day before. I reread the book, and when we get to the

part where we left off, I again ask children to raise their hands if they hear a

word they don’t understand, adding that day’s words and our thinking to

the chart. At the end of the book we find a glossary of unfamiliar words and

their meanings, which gives us an opportunity to confirm or correct some

of our definitions on the chart. We decide to mark each with either a C

when our thinking is confirmed, or a C with an X on top when our defini-

tion is contradicted by the book’s glossary.

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108

When we finish, I ask the children what they’ve learned, and I record their

thinking on the chart (see Figure 8.2). Before I send them off to readers’

workshop I say, “In your reading today, if you come across a word and you

don’t understand what it means, think about what we’ve learned and give it

a try. Happy reading!”

Postscript: Check out the sticky notes shown in Figure 8.3. A group of

kids at one table came up with the sticky note format, and after they shared

it with the rest of the class that day, it caught on. Thereafter, children

brought their books and sticky notes to share. This allowed us to talk about

the meaning of the unknown words together, which gave several children at

once a chance to learn new words, and gave me an opportunity to clear up

any misconceptions.

Readers make predictions about text and confirm or contradict

their predictions as they read on

Books with opportunities for making clear-cut predictions that can be con-

firmed or contradicted in the text are useful for teaching children about

109

Chapter 8: Inferring

FIGURE 8.2 Inferring

meanings of words from

Where Are You Going,

Manyoni? by Catherine Stock

prediction. One such book is The Royal Bee by Frances and Ginger Park,

the story of a young boy in Korea named Song-ho, who wants desperately

to learn how to read and write. But only the privileged yangban children are

allowed to go to school, and Song-ho is very poor. . . .

I read aloud the first few pages, stopping to infer meanings for such

unknown terms as yangban, sangmin, and Royal Bee, and giving children a bit

of background knowledge about the culture of Korea at the time of the story.

When we pick up the story again, Song-ho hears the ringing of the school

bell off in the distance and follows its sweet sound deep into the valley.

Once there, he looks through the rice-paper doors of the Sodang

School and sees the shadows of the yangban pupils and their master. When

Master Min slides open the door, Song-ho asks if he can be his pupil. The

master admires Song-ho’s bravery, but he knows that “rules are rules, and

sangmins were not allowed to attend the Sodang School.” With a lump in

his throat, he tells Song-ho to go home.

I put the book down. “So what are you thinking? What do you predict

will happen next?” Grant raises his hand. “I predict Song-ho is going to get

into that school, and he’s going to learn to read and write poetry.”

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110

FIGURE 8.3 Sticky notes to share

I record his prediction on a two-column chart entitled “Our predic-

tions—and the thinking behind them” and ask, “What’s the thinking

behind your prediction, Grant? What made you predict that Song-ho will

get to go to the Sodang School, even though Master Min tells him to go

home?”

“Well, you know how the star of the book always gets the really good

stuff? That’s why I think he’ll get to go.”

“That’s smart, Grant. You’re using your schema for stories like this one

to predict what might happen.

“Does anybody have a different prediction?” I ask, hoping to see at

least one raised hand. But it’s not to be. This day everyone predicts that

Song-ho is going to the Sodang School, and he’s going to learn to read and

write!

“Let’s go back into the text,” I say. “Listen as I reread and see if you

hear anything else that might have helped you predict he’d get to go to

school and learn to read and write.” I add the children’s thinking and mine

to the chart, right under Grant’s. As we read on, the children confirm their

prediction when Master Min says, “Welcome to the Sodang School, Song-

ho.” I put a C for “confirmed” under their prediction.

The second day I read the rest of the story. Just as we predicted, Song-

ho learns to read and write. We learn about the Royal Bee, a contest of

knowledge held every spring in the Great Hall at the governor’s palace.

Only one pupil will be chosen to represent the Sodang School.

I close the book and give children the two-column note form, asking

them to predict who will go to the Royal Bee on one side and to record the

thinking behind their prediction on the other. (An example of their

responses is shown in Figure 8.4.) We share, and then I read the rest of the

story aloud. Guess who gets a big cheer when I finish the story? Could it be

Song-ho?

Readers use their prior knowledge and textual clues to draw

conclusions and form unique interpretations of text

Once I saw the glee on the faces of those “fish” flailing around the meeting

area (see Chapter 6), I knew I needed to provide children regular opportu-

nities for dramatic expression. But it was Frank’s question about the pagoda

that kept me thinking. With practice, could dramatic responses really help

kids draw conclusions and form unique interpretations of text? Could act-

ing out a tricky word or a puzzling piece of text really serve as a means to

understanding? Could one child’s images build or strengthen the images of

another, thereby enhancing their learning?

111

Chapter 8: Inferring

Frank and the pagoda experience showed me that these activities

could help kids—but I had to figure out how I could involve everyone in a

manageable way. Again I took up Georgia Heard’s book of poems,

Creatures of the Earth, Sea, and Sky. The poems are short, I know children

have at least some schema for most entries, and the content is just difficult

enough for children to have to think through the poem carefully to under-

stand it.

I choose six poems I think lend themselves best to dramatic interpre-

tation and copy them onto chart paper. The children and I read each of

them aloud several times. Then I say, “Think carefully about the poems we

just read. Which one of them is most interesting to you? Which one makes

you think, ‘Hmmm, what is this poem really about?’ Choose one you’d like

to understand better.

“Once you’ve decided, go to the poem you want to learn more about.

Take it with you and find a place in the room you can work well. You have

about fifteen minutes to build on each other’s ideas and figure out how

your group can best interpret the poem you’ve chosen. Good luck!”

I observe Mitchell, Geoffrey, and Allan. They’ve chosen the poem

“Dressing Like a Snake”:

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112

FIGURE 8.4 Zach’s prediction about Song-ho

A snake changes its clothes

only twice a year.

Beginning with its nose,

peeling down to its toes:

new clothes suddenly appear.

Wouldn’t it be nice

to dress only twice

instead of each day of the year?

“What will they do with this one?” I wonder. “Do they get the fact

that it’s about a snake shedding its skin? What conclusions will they draw?

And how in the world will they create an interpretation that mirrors those

conclusions?”

I tell myself to stay out of it, and once again, it’s a wise decision. Figure

8.5 shows the three boys acting out the snake’s shedding its skin.

Children love to use a two-column format to help them organize their

thinking as they practice inferring (see Figure 8.6). They mark up the text,

record their thinking as it evolves, and in the end come up with what they

think the poem or text is about.

Postscript: Children saw these exercises as riddles, and spontaneously

began writing their own during writers’ workshop. We decided to write a

poem together and send it home to see if their parents could figure out

what we were describing. This was such a hit that I began to post the

113

Chapter 8: Inferring

FIGURE 8.5 Mitchell, Geoffrey, and Allan “Dressing Like a Snake”

children’s riddles out in the hall, with spaces for passersby to write in what

they inferred the poems were about. After a week or so, children wrote in

the titles of their poems, giving those same passersby a chance to confirm or

change their thinking.

Readers know to infer when the answers to their questions are

not explicitly stated in the text

How Many Days to America? by Eve Bunting is the story of a family forced by

soldiers to flee the village they love. They board a small fishing boat in the

middle of the night, taking with them only a change of clothing and some

jewelry to buy their way to America. The trip is a dangerous one; the motors of

the little boat stop, the passengers run out of food and water, and thieves come

aboard, demanding money and jewels. Will they ever reach America safely?

Reading with Meaning

114

FIGURE 8.6 Using a two-column format for inferring

I choose a book like this one because I know the story will provoke

lots of questions, most of them requiring readers to infer answers by using

clues in the text and their prior knowledge. I know, too, that because the

content is difficult, there will be opportunities for teaching children to

actively listen and learn from each other.

I begin by reading aloud and modeling my questions. Three or four

pages in, I invite children to share their questions; I add them to mine in

my notebook. By the end of the story, we’ve asked many questions:

■ Why did the soldiers make them leave?

■ Why did she have to give him her wedding ring? And garnets?

■ Why are the soldiers shooting at them instead of helping?

■ Did they go to our America? We don’t have trees like that.

■ Where are they from?

■ Why did the thieves steal from them? They were so nice.

■ Will they ever get to America?

■ Did they get to go back to their village?

After school I write the questions on a chart, and we take a couple of

days to go back into the text to work together to figure out the answers. I

think aloud about how I’m using my schema, the pictures, and the words in

the text to help me infer answers; gradually I invite children to do the same,

recording our thinking on the chart. Focusing on one question at a time

allows me to show children how to extend dialogue by building on the con-

versation of others.

Readers create interpretations to enrich and deepen their

experience in a text

Have you ever read a book that changed the way you thought or felt about

something? Have you ever read a book that made you feel you were a better

person for having read it? Maybe you learned something about yourself that

you never knew before, looked at an issue from another point of view, or

changed your thinking about something you once believed to be true.

Growing up in the small town of Lamar, Colorado, I would some-

times explore with my family the crumbling ruins of nearby Camp

Amache, a Japanese internment camp set in the sand and sage of southeast-

ern Colorado. Sitting under the lone cottonwood tree, I’d listen to stories of

how this land once held hundreds of Japanese Americans against their will

during World War II. I learned that the fear they might in some way con-

tribute to the Japanese war effort was the sole reason for their confinement.

115

Chapter 8: Inferring

“This happened in America?” I wondered. I couldn’t believe it. But when I

read James Bradley’s Flags of Our Fathers, I gained a new perspective.

Though the story was still hard to believe, I was at least able to understand

the motivation and fears of those who believed that confinement of these

U.S. citizens was necessary.

Books like Miss Maggie by Cynthia Rylant, Something Beautiful by

Sharon Dennis Wyeth, If You Listen by Charlotte Zolotow, Oliver Button Is

a Sissy by Tomie dePaola, and Fireflies by Julie Brinkloe, whose characters

experience the ups and downs of childhood, might help children gain new

perspectives. Miss Maggie is a story about Maggie Ziegler, an elderly eccen-

tric who lives by herself in a rotting old house out in the middle of

nowhere, and Nat Crawford, a little boy who learns to follow his heart

when Miss Maggie needs him most.

Before I begin reading, I talk to children about how authors often

want their readers to take something away from their book, that they want

to leave their readers with something to think about and remember.

“Books,” I tell them, “can help you think about important things in new

ways. As I read Miss Maggie, be thinking about what Cynthia Rylant might

want you to think about and remember.” Devon’s written response to this

book is shown in Figure 8.7.

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116

FIGURE 8.7 Devon’s

written response to Miss

Maggie by Cynthia Rylant

117

Chapter 8: Inferring

■ Evidence of Understanding and Independence

“Inferring is thinking

in your head to help

you understand, when

the story doesn’t let you

in on it.”

Colin

“When we infer

together, it’s like a

wire that connects

from my head to

someone else’s head, on

and on and on, all

around the circle.”

Riley

“Inferring is some-

thing I always keep

with me—wherever I

go, it follows me

around. I carry it

with me to figure out

things in my life.”

Frank

“You know when you

wonder why? If the

book doesn’t tell you,

you can use your

schema and the clues

in the text to help you.

That’s inferring.”

Nina

Inferring about a missing frog

Zachary’s prediction in Timothy Goes to School by Rosemary Wells

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118

“Inferring is thinking

about what’s going to

happen in the future.”

Madison

“I’m thinking

inferring is the biggest

strategy so far, ’cause

you see it’s about using

your schema and

making connections

and even mental

images, too, and

putting them all

together to figure out

what is happening.”

Justin

“I’m inferring my dog

is really good at it, like

last night when I went

to get his leash, he ran

to the door! He was

inferring I was going

to take him for a

walk. And whenever

he hears the garage

door opening, he starts

jumping all around

because he’s inferring

my dad’s home.”

Camille

Zach’s thinking after reading Dibble and Dabble by Dave and Julie Saunders

Max’s “How Life Was Born”

119

Chapter 8: Inferring

Nina makes connections from her life to the text to enhance understanding

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120

Abby and Emily’s inference in Peach and Blue by Sarah Kilborne

Inferring at a Glance

What’s Key for Kids?

■ Readers determine meanings of unknown words by using their

schema, paying attention to textual and picture clues, rereading, and

engaging in conversations with others.

■ Readers make predictions about text and confirm or contradict their

predictions as they read on.

■ Readers use their prior knowledge and textual clues to draw conclu-

sions and form unique interpretations of text.

■ Readers know to infer when the answers to their questions are not

explicitly stated in the text.

■ Readers create interpretations to enrich and deepen their experience

in a text.

(Adapted from Keene and PEBC)

Tried and True Texts for Inferring

Creatures of Earth, Sea, and Sky by Georgia Heard

Fireflies by Julie Brinkloe

Fly Away Home by Eve Bunting

For the Good of the Earth and Sun by Georgia Heard

Grandfather Twilight by Barbara Berger

How Many Days to America? by Eve Bunting

If You Listen by Charlotte Zolotow

Miss Maggie by Cynthia Rylant

Mother Earth, Father Sky selected by Jane Yolen

Oliver Button Is a Sissy by Tomie dePaola

The Royal Bee by Frances Park and Ginger Park

Something Beautiful by Sharon Dennis Wyeth

Where Are You Going, Manyoni? by Catherine Stock

Winter Fox by Catherine Stock

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Chapter 8: Inferring

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123

Asking

Questions

Questioning webs help

children activate and

organize their thinking

and learning in order

to answer a specific

question.

Ben and his Wonder Box.

ikes! This is one weird book,” I think as I read The Stranger by Chris

Van Allsburg late one night. “What’s it about?” I wonder, and

“What’s the deal with the guy?”

“How many times are you going to read that?” my husband asks,

sleepily rolling over and pulling a pillow over his head. “Come on,” I say. “I

know it’s late, but just listen to a little of it—there’s this one part I want to

talk with you about.” I take his silence to mean “I’d love to listen and share

my thinking with you,” so I begin reading aloud. When I finish, I realize he

hasn’t heard a word.

“Mesmerized” would be how I’d describe the children as they listened

to the story the next day. (At least they know a good story when they hear

one.) And the questions! “Who is the stranger?” many wondered as they sat

eye-to-eye and knee-to-knee. “Do you think he’s part of nature? Is he

magic? Why would Farmer Bailey let a stranger into his house? How could

the thermometer break like that?” Their questions seemed endless.

In the midst of the hubbub, Grace plopped herself into my lap and

asked, “Mrs. Miller, what are you wondering?”

“Well, you know the part where the stranger is dressed in his old clothes

and he’s getting ready to leave? I’m wondering what made him decide to go.”

“I know why!” she says, opening the book to the page where the

stranger is holding the red leaf. “He had to go because he got his memory

back. See the red leaf? Remember how it was green? When he blew on it

and it turned red, he got his memory back. See his face? The red leaf made

him remember who he was.”

“How had I missed that?” I wondered. “And how had Grace figured it

out so quickly?” I’d always told children that our class is a community of

learners and that I had so much to learn from them, but did I really believe

it? I was good at listening to children in order to inform my teaching, but

did I ever really consider that a child, and an emergent reader at that, could

help me understand a picture book?

I don’t think so. Grace taught me I don’t have to know all the answers

to teach well. Understanding that I can be both teacher and learner has

broadened my definition of my role in the classroom and increased my

capacity to teach and learn.

It used to be that the books I deemed weird, or the ones that kept me

a little off balance, remained on the shelves of libraries and bookstores. But

now they’re on my shelves, too. They’ve become the vehicle that propels my

teaching (and learning) forward.

I learned that as my questions became less literal and more sophisti-

cated, so did the children’s; as I began to think more deeply about my read-

Reading with Meaning

124

ing and learning, so did they; and as I began to ask questions that truly mat-

tered to me, they did, too.

Coincidence? Not a chance. The connection is absolute. The children

I teach are limited only when I choose to limit myself. And that hardback

copy of The Stranger propped up on the ledge behind my desk? Call it a

reminder.

Anchor Lessons

Readers purposefully and spontaneously ask questions before,

during, and after reading

Grandfather Twilight is one of my favorite books for teaching children

about asking questions. Beautifully written and illustrated by Barbara

Berger, it’s the story of Grandfather Twilight and how he puts the world to

sleep night after night.

Before reading the book, I explain to the children that thoughtful

readers ask questions not only as they read, but also before and after read-

ing. “Like right now,” I say, “I’m thinking some of you might have a ques-

tion or two in your head about this book, Grandfather Twilight. Is that true?

You all do? I really love what great thinkers you are. . . .”

I record our questions, and the children help me code them as we go,

putting a B for questions we asked before we read, a D for those we asked

during reading, and an A for those we asked after reading the book.

At the end of the read-aloud, our chart looks like this:

We are learning that readers ask questions before, during, and

after reading. As we read Grandfather Twilight, we wondered:

B What is twilight?

B Is that Grandfather Twilight on the cover?

B I wonder if he’s magic.

D What does among mean?

D Is this about God?

D How could the strands of pearls be endless?

D How does the pearl get bigger and bigger?

A Why would this author write a book about stuff she doesn’t

understand?

A Could this be true?

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Chapter 9: Asking Questions

Children notice right away that we’d asked questions before, during,

and after reading, but I’m after more. “Here’s something else I want you to

think about,” I say. “Why do you think readers ask questions before, during,

and after reading? How does asking questions help you become a better

reader?” Then I wait. And wait. And wait.

Finally, Madison raises her hand. “I’m thinking it keeps your head in

the book. You don’t want to stop reading because when you ask questions,

you want to find out about them and you just can’t stop. It keeps your mind

awake.”

Postscript: To keep track of the children’s thinking and learning

throughout this study, I begin a chart entitled “Thinking about

Questioning.” I divide the chart into thirds, with these headings:

■ What do we know about asking questions?

■ How does asking questions help the reader?

■ How do readers figure out the answers to their questions?

We add to our knowledge during subsequent lessons when I ask,

“What did we learn about asking questions today? What new learning

could we add to our chart?” Asking children questions like these gives them

opportunities to process their learning and gives me a chance to mention

what I notice, too. We record our new learning on sticky notes and place

them under the appropriate category (see Figure 9.1).

Readers ask questions for many reasons

Readers ask questions to

■ clarify meaning.

■ speculate about text yet to be read.

■ determine an author’s style, intent, content, or format.

■ focus attention on specific components of the text.

■ locate a specific answer in the text or consider rhetorical questions

inspired in the text.

Because it’s difficult to predict the kinds of questions children might

ask, and it seems at odds with good teaching to limit their questions to a

certain kind or category, I don’t go down this list and focus on the reasons

readers ask questions one by one. But I do want children to understand that

readers ask different kinds of questions for a variety of purposes. How do I

go about it?

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126

Throughout our study of questioning, I pay attention to the kinds of ques-

tions the children and I ask, pointing out their specific purposes in the

moment. We make note of them and add our findings to the chart, right

under “How does asking questions help the reader?”

For example, when Meghan says, “I wonder if this book by Jonathan

London is going to be like the other Froggy books,” I point out that

Meghan is asking a question to determine the story’s content; she’s wonder-

ing if her book will be like the others she’s read by this author. Or when

Maddy asks, “What does ‘it is the flower of hope’ mean?” I point out that

smart readers also ask questions when the meaning of the text is unclear.

Readers determine whether the answers to their questions can be

found in the text or whether they will need to infer the answer

from the text, their background knowledge, and/or an outside

source

The Lotus Seed by Sherry Garland is the story of a Vietnamese family forced

to flee their homeland when a devastating civil war breaks out in their

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Chapter 9: Asking Questions

FIGURE 9.1 The

“Thinking about

Questioning” chart

country. With soldiers clamoring at their door, they’re allowed only a few

possessions before scrambling onto a crowded boat and setting sail in

stormy seas for America.

Sound familiar? I knew the children, too, would make connections

from Eve Bunting’s How Many Days to America? to The Lotus Seed. And I

knew they’d have many questions about the content of the story, which

would give me a chance to demonstrate that while some answers would

require us to infer or consult an outside source, others could be found right

in the text.

I record the children’s questions before, during, and after reading.

Over the next several days we work through them, rereading the text (it’s

short) and thinking aloud about how we answered many of them. Coding

answers with a T for those found in the text, an I for those we needed to

infer, and an OS for those requiring an outside source helps make the

process visible and increases children’s awareness of how and why readers

use a variety of strategies to find answers to their questions.

I’m in no hurry for us to get through the questions, nor is recording

the answers my primary goal. I want to show kids that thoughtful readers,

readers like themselves, not only take the time to ask questions, but also are

compelled to seek the answers, even (especially?) when it takes a bit of

doing.

At the end of the third day, our chart looks like this:

We are learning that readers figure out the answers to their ques-

tions by rereading and looking for clues in the text (T), inferring

(I), and/or using an outside source (OS). When we read The

Lotus Seed, we asked these questions and coded how we figured

out their answers.

Where does this take place? T

What’s a lotus seed? OS (Hollis brought one in!)

What is a dragon throne? T (author’s note)

Who stole it? How did he lose it? T (author’s note)

What’s an altar? T (picture in text)

Why did her parents choose her husband for her? OS (Mrs. Miller’s

schema)

Why did he march off to war? Did he die? I

Why did she take the lotus seed, but not her mother-of-pearl hair

comb? I

What does scrambled mean? OS (Brendan)

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128

What will happen to them? T

Who’s throwing the bombs? What war is this? T/OS (author’s note

and Mrs. Miller)

Where are they going? T

What city is this? I

Why did they all live together? I

Who is Ba’? Why did she cry and cry? I

What does “it is the flower of hope” mean? I

Why doesn’t the author give us more information? I

Where is Vietnam? OS (globe, pull-down map)

Postscript: One would think that after three days of delving into a

book, children would be ready to move on. Most are, but there are

always some who can’t seem to get enough of one book or another. Four

days later, Hollis, Tate, Olivia, and Emily were still poring over The Lotus

Seed.

They fashioned a response sheet by connecting five pieces of 12-by-

18-inch construction paper lengthwise with tape; then they covered it

with sticky notes that recorded their thinking. Entitled “Our Thinking

about The Lotus Seed,” the sheet bears evidence that these four are using

strategies flexibly—they are on their way to learning how readers pur-

posefully use a variety of strategies when they need them to construct

meaning.

They had asked questions, such as

Why did her parents get to choose her husband? We still don’t get

that.

Why didn’t the little boy just ask to see the lotus seed?

Why did he hide it?

When Mrs. Miller was reading us The Lotus Seed, we didn’t know

what the River of Perfumes meant, and we still don’t.

Who is the new emperor?

Where did they go in America?

How many kids did she have?

They had created mental images, drawing pictures of

the lotus flower

red bombs exploding everywhere

an ao dai

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Chapter 9: Asking Questions

grandmother shouting (her mouth one big circle) when she couldn’t

find the lotus seed

an altar

They had drawn inferences, such as

We are inferring she ended up in New York because of all the tall

buildings and the twinkling blinking lights.

We’re thinking she has two or four other kids because in the picture

there might be some in front of her and some in the back of her

holding onto her hands.

They had made connections, such as

When I feel lonely or sad, I cuddle up with my blanket or pillow, and

then I feel safe.

These soldiers are just like the ones in How Many Days to America?

They gave opinions, such as

We don’t ever want our parents to pick our husbands!

We think The Lotus Seed is the best book we’ve ever read!

Readers understand that many of the most intriguing questions

are not answered explicitly in the text, but are left to the reader’s

interpretation

All I See by Cynthia Rylant is the story of a man named Gregory, who

spends his days painting whales. He paints them by the side of a beautiful

lake, sometimes whistling a theme from Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, his

cat curled up at his feet. When he tires, he lies flat in his canoe and drifts

down the lake, smiling up at the sky. A little boy named Charlie watches

him from a distance, and the two become great friends.

Experience tells me that the answers to children’s questions about

stories like this one are not likely to be found in the text. Nor will they be

easy to infer. We’ll never know for sure why whales are all Gregory sees, if

this is his “real job,” or what Charlie’s passion will be. But thoughtful

readers don’t just shake their heads in confusion and keep on reading.

Thoughtful readers know how intriguing it is to take the time to specu-

late about these kinds of questions and create their own unique explana-

tions, or interpretations.

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130

“Remember when we created dramatic interpretations of poems?” I

ask. “Interpreting answers to questions that are hard to figure out is a lot

like that. Readers create their own unique interpretations by using their

schema, creating mental images, and talking with others to figure out what

makes the most sense to them.

“Let’s choose a question from our list,” I continue, “one that we really

want to figure out, and think out loud about how we might make sense of it.”

I’ve made a questioning web—a circle with lines fanning out from all

sides—and I write the question the children choose (“Why are whales all he

sees?”) inside the circle. I record their interpretations on the lines around it.

They think that maybe . . .

■ He doesn’t want to forget about whales, and he doesn’t want the rest

of the world to either.

■ He has so much schema about whales, he just has to let some of it out.

■ He’s like a machine full of mental images, and they are all of whales.

■ He’s passionate about whales.

■ The music is an invisible net for mental images—it traps them and

helps him see whales.

■ If you care about something a lot, you see it everywhere!

■ He knows the blue whale is endangered—maybe he wants other

people to know it, too, so somebody can do something.

■ He’s an illustrator for books about whales. Maybe he’s friends with

Seymour Simon.

When we finish, we talk about all the different ways we’ve come to

think about, or interpret, the question. Sometimes we consider all our dif-

ferent ways of thinking to create a class interpretation; other times we focus

on a single one.

Questioning webs are also useful with poetry and nonfiction text (our

web in response to Monarch Butterfly by Gail Gibbons is shown at the start

of this chapter). Children use questioning webs independently, too. For

example, Matthew’s response to his question “Why is Amelia Bedelia so

weird?” is shown in Figure 9.2.

Readers understand that hearing others’ questions inspires new

ones of their own; likewise, listening to others’ answers can also

inspire new thinking

What do you do when you have questions in your reading that you just

can’t figure out? I usually talk with somebody who’s read the book (though

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Chapter 9: Asking Questions

that usually results in even more questions!), or I try to force my best friend

to listen to me read aloud at 11:30 .. (with limited results).

In the classroom, inviting children to choose a question that is partic-

ularly puzzling and get together with a few others who are likewise

intrigued provides opportunities for children to think and learn together.

This type of activity promotes the social nature of learning in authentic

ways and permits children to gain control of a strategy with the support of

their peers.

As I listen in on the conversations, sometimes their thinking seems off

the mark, and sometimes I think they’re right on. But what I believe to be

true isn’t important at that point; it’s the process of children working

together to actively construct meaning for themselves that is key. Reminding

myself that there usually isn’t just one right answer keeps me from trying to

influence the children’s thinking. My advice? Resist the temptation to jump

in and lead the kids to what you believe—you may be surprised at what you

learn!

I’ve chosen Cynthia Rylant’s An Angel for Solomon Singer, the story of

a lonely man who lives in a hotel for men in New York City. Solomon

Singer wanders the city streets, longing for his boyhood home in Indiana

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132

FIGURE 9.2 Matthew’s questioning web for Amelia Bedelia Goes Camping by Peggy Parish

and dreaming of the things he loves: fireplaces, purple walls, porch swings,

and balconies. One night he happens into the Westway Café, a place

known for making dreams come true. A friendly waiter named Angel tells

him to come back, and night after night he does. Soon Solomon Singer’s

life begins to change. . . .

Children wonder:

■ Will there really be an angel in this story?

■ Why doesn’t Solomon Singer move back with his parents in Indiana?

■ How could Indiana be mixed into his blood?

■ Why doesn’t he come to Colorado? We have hotels here with bal-

conies and purple walls.

■ Why does he keep coming back to the Westway Café?

■ Is the waiter really an angel?

■ Did his dreams come true?

We talk about the questions a bit, and I ask the children to think

about which ones seem the most intriguing: “Which one would you most

like to talk about with someone else?” I record their choices.

“Listen again to the story,” I say to them the next day, “and when I

finish, get together with the children who are interested in discussing the

same question as you are. I’ve written the questions and the names of the

children who have chosen them on construction paper envelopes like this

one. The paper inside is for you to record your thinking and anything

new you wonder about. Be ready to share your work in about twenty

minutes.”

Sometimes I ask the children to record their answers first, share them

with their group, then record their thinking again, noting how or whether

their answers have changed, and why. I also encourage children who are

reading the same book independently to get together in small groups to

share their questions and ideas.

■■■

I design lessons like the one that follows to provide one last scaffold before

I ask children to apply a strategy independently. The lesson also helps me

assess which children may need extra support in small-group work and/or

individual conferences.

I choose Amelia’s Road by Linda Altman because I know that while

children will identify with Amelia, her parents, and her teacher, they’ll also

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Chapter 9: Asking Questions

have questions about migrant farmworkers, labor camps, and why a little

girl cries every time her father takes out a road map.

I’ve prepared a chart and a record sheet for children that are almost

identical. Over the span of two or three days, everything we do together in

the large group I ask children to do in their own reading as well. For

example, on the first day, we

■ read the story aloud.

■ record our questions on sticky notes.

■ place them on the chart.

■ choose a burning question we want to focus on the next day.

After the lesson, children do the same things—they

■ read independently.

■ record their questions on sticky notes.

■ place them on their record sheets.

■ choose a burning question each wants to focus on the next day.

The next day we reread the story, focusing on our burning question.

We work together to answer the question and spend time reflecting on what

helped us most. The children then respond in writing to their individual

questions during independent reading time and reflect on what helped them

most. (See the class chart of Amerlia’s Road and Cory’s corresponding

response to Tut’s Mummy Lost and Found at the start of Chapter 1.)

Readers understand that the process of questioning is used in

other areas of their lives, both personal and academic

Ben is balanced in the crook of a tree (as shown at the beginning of this

chapter). Emily has a magnifying glass and is looking closely at a ladybug.

Val’s examining a leaf with curious lumpy growths, and Nina’s on her

back, hands behind her head, looking up at the sky. Ben, Madi, Val,

Nina, and their twenty-three classmates are scattered across the school’s

front lawn, wandering, wondering, and exploring the world around

them.

Each has a Wonder Box—a 3-by-5-inch file box they’ve decorated

with small stick-on ladybugs, dinosaurs, birds, and flowers and filled with a

stack of brightly colored index cards—“Wonder Cards”—on which to

record their questions.

Reading with Meaning

134

I’ve just read The Wise Woman and Her Secret by Eve Merriam, the

story of a wise woman who knows the secret of wisdom and a little girl

named Jenny, who learns that she knows the secret, too.

As the children wander, they record questions on their Wonder Cards:

■ How does a bird learn to sing?

■ Why do ladybugs have spots?

■ Are we right now out in space?

■ How does an ant find its way home?

■ How was the world born?

■ Why do trees have bark?

■ Why do dogs have wet noses?

■ Why do some leaves have lumps?

■ Who made God?

■ Why is the sky blue?

■ Why do bees sting?

■ Did dinosaurs ever walk on our playground?

■ How can it be so cold in springtime? (This one’s easy: We live in

Denver!)

Ever since the day the wise woman and her secret entered the chil-

dren’s lives, Wonder Boxes have been spotted in the lunchroom, on the

playground, at home, and on field trips. Magnifying glasses have found

their way into them, as well as shiny pebbles, feathers, dead bugs, “dia-

monds,” flower petals, and “dinosaur fossils.”

And I have begun to do some wondering of my own. Since when have

I looked closely at a bustling anthill and wondered what goes on under-

neath? Since when have I taken the time to pick up a roly-poly and watch it

curl into a little ball? And since when have I tried to catch snowflakes in my

coat sleeve, just to see if I’d be the first to find two the same?

Children everywhere know that the secret of wisdom is to be curious

about the world, to open up their senses and see, hear, taste, touch, and

smell life’s treasures. Giving children time to explore their world, ask ques-

tions, and pursue those questions that matter to them most lets them know

I value their curiosity outside the classroom as well as inside. My job is to

continue to nurture their wonder and work to awaken my own.

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Chapter 9: Asking Questions

Reading with Meaning

136

■ Evidence of Understanding and Independence

“When you have lots

of questions about a

book, that’s good.

Then you know there’s

going to be a lot of

learning coming to

you.”

Daniel

“I think that some-

times kids can learn

stuff that grown-ups

can’t. A kid’s brain

isn’t as stuffed with

things they have to do,

so they have more

room to think and see

and ask questions

about things they don’t

already know the

answers to.”

Lilli

“When you ask

questions, it makes

you want to keep

reading so you can

figure them out. It

keeps your head in the

book.”

Madison

Hayden creates a questioning web at home to help him understand a photograph in

the newspaper

Madison’s question about Catwings by Ursula LeGuin

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Chapter 9: Asking Questions

“Asking questions is

smart. It means you

don’t understand

something and you

know you don’t

understand it.”

Bret

“Sometimes you never

get the answer to your

really strong questions,

but you should still

keep working to figure

them out, because the

answer can come to

you another day.”

Whit

A group exploration

Daniel’s quotation about Strega Nona by Tomie dePaola

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138

Chris’s questions before, during, and after reading The Taileypo by Paul Galdone

139

Chapter 9: Asking Questions

Bret’s response to The Magic Fish by Freya Littledale

Asking Questions at a Glance

What’s Key for Kids?

■ Readers spontaneously and purposefully ask questions before, during,

and after reading.

■ Readers ask questions to

clarify meaning

speculate about text yet to be read

determine an author’s style, intent, content, or format

focus attention on specific components of the text

locate a specific answer in the text or consider rhetorical questions

inspired by the text.

■ Readers determine whether the answers to their questions can be

found in the text or whether they will need to infer the answer from

the text, their background knowledge, and/or an outside source.

■ Readers understand that many of the most intriguing questions are

not answered explicitly in the text, but are left to the reader’s inter-

pretation.

■ Readers understand that hearing others’ questions inspires new ones

of their own; likewise, listening to others’ answers can also inspire

new thinking.

■ Readers understand that the process of questioning is used in other

areas of their lives, both personal and academic.

■ Readers understand that asking questions deepens their comprehension.

(Adapted from Keene and PEBC)

Tried and True Texts for Asking Questions

All I See by Cynthia Rylant

Amelia’s Road by Linda Jacobs Altman

An Angel for Solomon Singer by Cynthia Rylant

Fly Away Home by Eve Bunting

Grandfather Twilight by Barbara Berger

The Lotus Seed by Sherry Garland

Monarch Butterfly by Gail Gibbons

The Stranger by Chris Van Allsburg

The Trumpet of the Swan by E. B. White

Why Is the Sky Blue? by Sally Grindley

The Wise Woman and Her Secret by Eve Merriam

Yanni Rubbish by Shulamith Levey Oppenheim

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140

141

Determining

Importance

inNonfiction

Emily shares her learning

with the class.

Children determine

which questions they

want to pursue further.

hen are you going to teach us about those kind of books?” Madi

asks during share time, pointing to the red tubs of books

labeled Dinosaurs, Flight, Reptiles, Biographies, Animals, Cars

and Trucks, Magazines, Field Guides, First Discovery Books, Newspapers,

Maps and Atlases, Big Cats, Disasters, and more.

“You mean the nonfiction?” I answer, surprised. The rest of the class is

nodding, pointing, and bouncing up and down, letting me know they’re

interested in knowing more about those kinds of books, too. “We-ell,” I say,

“how about Monday?” Whoops of joy erupt from the troops, but I’m

thinking, “What are you saying? Monday’s only three days away!”

We’d been learning how and why readers determine importance in fic-

tion, and I’d been planning to wrap things up and move on to something

new. We’d spent five weeks on this strategy already, and the children had

learned how readers identify key themes in stories, make predictions about

the stories’ organization and content, and use what they’d learned about the

characteristics of fiction to distinguish important from unimportant infor-

mation. And they’d learned that determining what’s important in fiction

often depends as much on the reader as it does on the text.

But now Madi had me thinking. I thought about her question and real-

ized how smart of her it was to wonder about “those kind of books.” I’d

assumed that somehow children already knew that nonfiction books

involved reading to learn—they’d been looking at and reading these books

all year, hadn’t they? And I’d assumed that if they could read and understand

stories, they could read and understand informational books, too. I hadn’t

really considered the importance of explicitly teaching them the difference.

I’d have taken a day or two to teach them about the table of contents,

the index, maybe even the glossary in such books—and, of course, to

explain that nonfiction gives us information that is true. But Madi was after

more than that. She’d learned how to determine importance in fiction. I

suspected she was wondering how to go about doing that in nonfiction—

and how to learn from those kinds of books, too.

That weekend I lugged home about twenty nonfiction books, vowing

to make good on my word. As I read through them, I noted their distin-

quishing characteristics and features, determining which ones I thought

were most important for children to learn. But by the time Sunday evening

rolled around, it became clear that before I could teach children how to use

the features of nonfiction in purposeful ways, I had to teach them what

nonfiction was.

Monday morning the meeting area is a sea of books about snakes, dol-

phins, gemstones, sharks, kittens, puppies, wolves, the ocean, shipwrecks,

Reading with Meaning

142

the human body, flowers, space, earthquakes, astronauts, cowboys, balleri-

nas, dinosaurs, soccer, Tiger Woods, volcanoes, bugs, and big trucks. My

purpose? Just as we teach children to use math manipulatives by giving

them time to “free explore” what they are and how they work, giving them

time to explore nonfiction provides them (and you) with experiences to

build on when more explicit teaching begins.

The children’s eyes light up when they enter the room; it’s almost as if

I’ve laid out doughnuts and milk. They scurry over, devouring one book

after another. “Ooohs” and “Aaahs” and “Check this out!” and “OHMY-

GOSH!” and “Can I have that shark one next?” let me know my plan is a

good one. Their enthusiasm is contagious—before long I’m down on the

floor right along with them, ooohing and aaahing and learning myself.

Questions naturally arise, and out come the Wonder Boxes. Children

begin recording questions like mad. “How can a wolf capture an elk when

the elk is so much bigger?” Devon wants to know (Figure 10.1). “Why are

some twisters big and others small?” Chris wonders. “How does a puppy

get out of its mama’s tummy?” Caroline, Nicole, and Meghan ask (Figure

10.2). “This is perfect,” I think to myself. Children are loving the explo-

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Chapter 10: Determining Importance in Nonfiction

FIGURE 10.1 Devon’s question

ration of nonfiction, their interest in Wonder Boxes has been renewed, and

they will have a wider variety of questions to choose from when it comes

time to select their most important ones and read for specific information.

Modeling Differences Between Fiction

and Nonfiction

I begin by holding up a copy of Grandfather’s Journey by Allen Say. “What

type of text do you predict this is?” I ask. “Fiction!” the children reply.

“Knowing that it’s fiction, how might you expect the story to be organ-

ized?” Andrew predicts the story will have “a beginning, middle, and end.”

Others predict a setting, characters, a problem, some events that connect to

the problem, and a resolution.

“Good thinking!” I tell them. “You remembered what we learned

about fiction and how it is organized. Now can you predict what the story

might be about?” Wyatt predicts it might be about somebody’s grandpa

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144

FIGURE 10.2 “How do puppies come out of their mama's tummy?”

who once went on a journey across the ocean to America. He thinks he’s

“probably going to have some trouble on the way, like maybe robbers or a

war or something like that. But then he’ll meet some nice people and make

some new friends and get married and have kids and live happily ever after.”

I want Wyatt and his classmates to be this confident and articulate

when they make predictions about the organization and content of nonfic-

tion text, too. Just as with narrative text, teaching children that expository

text has predictable characteristics and features they can count on before

they read allows them to construct meaning more easily as they read.

I hold up a book entitled Bugs! Bugs! Bugs! by Jennifer Dussling.

“What do you notice about this type of text?” I ask the children as I leaf

through the book and read parts of it aloud. “It’s totally about bugs!” Cole

answers. “You’re right!” I tell him. “It is all about bugs. You noticed right

away that this kind of text is organized differently than fiction.

“You won’t find a beginning, middle, or end in books like this. And

you won’t find characters, problems, or resolutions either. Instead, these

kinds of books—you already know them as nonfiction—are organized

around specific topics and main ideas, and they try to teach you something.

Nonfiction writing gives you information that is true. Let’s read it and see

what we can learn. . . .”

Another day I talk with the children about how they can use what they

know about this type of text to make predictions about its content—what

the text might teach them. I say, “Remember when Wyatt was able to pre-

dict what might happen in Grandfather’s Journey? He was able to do that

because he’s learned, just like the rest of you, what to expect when you read

fiction. When readers read nonfiction, they make predictions about the

text, too. But they don’t make predictions about the kinds of things they

expect will happen. They make predictions about the kinds of things they

expect to learn.

“When readers make predictions about what they’ll learn, they acti-

vate their schema about the topic and what they know about the type of

text they are about to read. Take a look at this book—Nature Watch Spiders

by Barbara Taylor. Right away, because of its title and the photographs on

the cover, I can tell it’s a nonfiction text and it’s going to be about spiders.

See all the different kinds of spiders on the cover? I don’t know a lot about

spiders, but I do know they have eight legs, they spin intricate webs, and

they’re part of a group of small creatures called arachnids.

“I’m predicting this book will be about all the different kinds of spi-

ders in the world, and that maybe I’ll learn about where they live, what they

eat, their life cycles, and even which ones are dangerous to humans.” I flip

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Chapter 10: Determining Importance in Nonfiction

through the book, checking the table of contents, the headings, and the

index, explaining how these features help me make predictions about the

text. I do the same with two or three other books.

The next day I ask the children to help me make predictions. I release

responsibility by

■ asking children to bring a nonfiction book they haven’t read to the

meeting area, get eye-to-eye and knee-to-knee with a partner, and

make predictions about what they expect to learn.

■ spreading fiction and nonfiction materials out in the meeting area,

asking children to get a partner, choose two or three items, and ask

themselves, “Is this fiction or nonfiction? How do we know?”

■ asking children to bring a nonfiction book and a fiction book to the

meeting area, get into pairs, and create a Venn diagram that shows

the two books’ differences and similarities. We then create one large

diagram that combines everyone’s thinking (see Figure 10.3).

In his book I See What You Mean, Steve Moline writes, “If we teach

children that all reading is ‘reading for story’ we overlook many key strate-

Reading with Meaning

146

FIGURE 10.3 Venn diagram: fiction and nonfiction

gies that we employ when reading selectively. Some of these strategies

include scanning, skimming, accessing the text through the index, using

headings and signposts to the information we want or just strolling through

the pictures in order to orientate ourselves in the text” (p. 8).

Children are surprised to learn that depending on their purposes for

reading, they don’t have to read the text in order. I model using the various

nonfiction strategies, showing the children what it looks like, and what my

thinking is, as I skim and scan, access the index and the table of contents,

use the headings to guide me, read the picture captions, and so on—all to

find out what I need to know. I think aloud, too, about the information I

want to remember, and show how I use sticky notes, highlighters, and my

notebook to keep track of my learning.

Noticing and Remembering When We

Learn Something New

“Have you ever thought about the way you respond to new information?”

Steph Harvey asked me one day as we sat chatting away about nonfiction in

her sunlit writing room. “Have you ever noticed what your inner voice says

when you learn something new?” “Not really,” I answered, understanding

the inner voice part but unsure about what it was supposed to be saying. “It’s

something to think about,” she said, “and I have a hunch it’s important.”

(We don’t always talk about this stuff, but sometimes we just can’t help it.)

“Here, take a look at this,” she said, handing over a well-read National

Geographic. “Think aloud as you read, and you’ll see what I mean.” I open

the magazine’s familiar yellow-bordered cover and land on an article called

“Deadlysilk” by Richard Conniff. “Wow, Steph, listen to this!” I say after a

few minutes. “Did you know that some spiders eat their webs and reweave

them up to five times a day? That’s amazing! I never knew that! And get

this—it’s the female spider who does all that weaving—once the males

reach maturity they wander around making love, not war. I didn’t know

that either!”

Steph’s staring and smiling at me, for once silent. “What?” I say, throwing

up my hands. “Did you hear yourself?” she asks, rattling off “Wow!” “Listen to

this!” “That’s amazing!” “I never knew that!” and “Get this!” adding, “See how

those words signal you you’re learning something new?” “Oh my goodness,” I

say, “you’re right!” (Add “Oh my goodness” to the list, too.) We go on to yak

about something else, but as usual, Steph has me thinking.

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Chapter 10: Determining Importance in Nonfiction

“Boys and girls,” I say the next day, “wait until you hear what I learned

from my friend Steph yesterday.” I tell them the whole story, and think aloud

some more about the spider and its remarkable web to show them what I

mean. They want to discover their inner voices, too, and record the words

that help them recognize they’re learning something new on chart paper.

Soon I hear their cries:

“Awesome! Can you believe some ants squirt smelly acid when they’re

scared?”

“Sweet! It takes only eight and a half minutes for a space shuttle to

reach space.”

“Cool! Jumbo jets in the future will have two stories and can carry

more than five hundred people! I never knew that!”

“Whoa! When Mount Vesuvius erupted it buried the city of Pompeii

under a layer of ash that was twenty feet thick. That’s as high as our school!”

“Yikes! I just learned that a meteor the size of Mount Everest hit our

planet sixty-five million years ago and maybe caused the dinosaurs to be

extinct!”

“So how will you remember all the things you’ve learned?” I ask. “I

know!” Meghan volunteers. “Let’s put an N and an L on a sticky note for

‘new learning,’ and then just write the most important part—and the title

of the book, and the page number, too, so we can find it and read it again if

we need to.” It’s unanimous.

Convention Notebooks

My teammate Michelle DuMoulin and I knew the importance of teaching

our kids about the conventions, or features, of nonfiction. We knew this

helped focus and support young readers, and that even emergent readers

could determine importance and construct meaning by paying close atten-

tion to features such as photographs, diagrams, captions, and comparisons.

But we also knew we needed to build children’s background knowledge and

explicitly teach them what nonfiction conventions are, what kinds of infor-

mation these conventions give us, and how they help us determine what is

important in a text. We knew what we wanted to teach kids; it was the how

that had us stymied. We vowed, as we sometimes do, that we wouldn’t go

home until we had a plan.

That evening Convention Notebooks were born! We finally figured

out (hunger may have had something to do with it) a way to teach kids to

Reading with Meaning

148

recognize, remember, and begin to understand the purposes of the nonfic-

tion features they found. Measuring nine inches square, Convention

Notebooks contain twelve or so sheets of blank white paper and a construc-

tion paper cover and back. This is how they work:

Each day for two weeks Michelle and I focus on a different conven-

tion. Say our focus is on comparisons. Before class, we search our nonfic-

tion libraries for at least five or six places where comparisons have been used

and flag the pages with sticky notes. When it’s time for the lesson, the chil-

dren and I locate and name the comparisons we’ve found and read the sur-

rounding text aloud. But noticing and naming nonfiction conventions are

not enough. We also think aloud about how they help us as readers; we

think aloud about the purpose of each one.

Next, Michelle and I ask children to find examples of that same conven-

tion in books from the classroom or the library and either record one example

in their notebooks or create an example of their own. Children share their dis-

coveries in small groups each day, and we record our learning on a two-column

anchor chart headed “What do we know about nonfiction conventions?”

Convention Purpose

Labels Help the reader identify a picture or photograph

and/or its parts

Photographs Help the reader understand exactly what some-

thing looks like

Captions Help the reader better understand a picture or

photograph

Comparisons Help the reader understand the size of one thing

by comparing it to the size of something familiar

Cutaways Help the reader understand something by look-

ing at it from the inside

Maps Help the reader understand where things are in

the world

Types of print Help the reader by signaling, “Look at me! I’m

important!”

Close-ups Help the reader see details in something small

Tables of contents Help the reader identify key topics in the book

in the order they are presented

Index An alphabetical list of almost everything covered

in the text, with page numbers

Glossary Helps the reader define words contained in the

text

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Chapter 10: Determining Importance in Nonfiction

Convention Notebooks not only build background knowledge for

text features that children encounter in their reading, but they also can be

used as resources when children are asked to synthesize information in

order to answer research questions. The notebooks help children think

through which convention(s) would showcase their information best.

Locating Specific Information

Throughout our study of questioning and nonfiction, I ask the children to

place a Wonder Card or two into a basket. Two or three days a week we

draw one out and search for its answer. First I model for children what I do

when I want to find out specific information. I show them how to think

aloud about certain questions:

■ What do I already know about the topic?

■ What type of book or other source will help me best?

■ Where will I find the information?

■ How is the information organized in the source? How will I go about

locating what I need?

Then, after I’ve looked through the source of information:

■ What did I learn? How can I synthesize my learning for myself and

others?

I gradually release responsibility to children by asking the same ques-

tions of the whole group. When (or if) we find the answer to our Wonder

Card question, the child who asked the question records its answer on the

back of the card and cites the source (author, title, date). Later I ask chil-

dren to get into small groups or pairs; each group draws a question from the

basket and works together to explore the answer. Questions we can’t answer

are posted outside the classroom, under a sign that reads “HELP! Can you

help us with the answers to these questions? If you can, PLEASE write a

note to us and put it on our teacher’s desk. [At this point we include a map

to show readers how to get to our classroom.] Thanks from all of us in

Room 104.”

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150

Throughout this study I work closely with Jennifer Shouse, our tal-

ented librarian. She teaches the children about call numbers, where refer-

ence materials are located in the library and the kinds of information they

provide, and how to access Ask Jeeves, the World Book Online, and First

Connections: The Golden Book Encyclopedia on the computer. When chil-

dren print out information, Jennifer and I teach them to write in the mar-

gins and highlight the key concepts they want to remember.

■■■

By now, the children have learned some of the characteristics of nonfic-

tion. They’ve learned how to distinguish it from fiction, and how to

make predictions about its organization and content. They’ve become

familiar with the features of nonfiction books and their purposes, and

how to locate specific information. Most important, they’ve learned that

reading nonfiction is about reading to learn. I think they’re ready to put

all that learning to good use. Bring on the Wonder Boxes, and let’s find

out!

I ask children to find a spot in the room, spread out their Wonder

Cards, and choose three or four questions that they care about most.

“Which ones are you most passionate about?” I ask. “Which ones come

from your heart?” Once they’ve decided, I ask them to put the questions

they’ve selected in order of importance at the front of their Wonder

Boxes.

They can’t wait! The next day they arm themselves with their Wonder

Boxes, sticky notes, bright yellow highlighters, pencils, and notebooks, and

descend on the library and into the corners and spaces of the classroom,

spreading their materials out on tables and floor. I’m struck by their inde-

pendence. No one is asking me where the reptile books are, or to read their

book to them, or wandering aimlessly about. And not one soul is copying

sentence after sentence into a notebook.

Children synthesize and share their learning in a variety of ways.

These decisions are essentially theirs to make. I used to show the children

examples of ways to share their learning, but I’ve come to believe that limits

their capacity to think creatively. I make sure materials are in ample supply,

including posterboard for those who want it; I ask only that the children

include their question, evidence of what they learned, and at least one non-

fiction convention, and that they cite their source(s) of information. The

next section shows some of the ways children share their learning.

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Chapter 10: Determining Importance in Nonfiction

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152

■ Evidence of Understanding and Independence

“Bold print and head-

ings tell you what the

author thinks is

important. The index

and table of contents

let you choose for

yourself.”

Wyatt

“Themes go with

fiction and learning

goes with nonfiction.”

Maddy

“You know how when

it rains? The grass and

flowers and trees soak

up all the water they

need, and the rest just

runs on down the

street. We soak up

what’s important to

us, too, and let the rest

of it go away.”

Christopher

“The feelings that

stories leave you with

let you know what’s

most important.”

Nina

Exploring why dogs bark

Jamie’s ladybug

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Chapter 10: Determining Importance in Nonfiction

“Because our schema

is different, the things

that are important to

us are different, too.

Different things are

important to different

people.”

Caroline

“You learn and

remember the things

that are important to

you. If you don’t care

about it, you won’t

remember it.”

Andrew

“The title gives you a

big clue about what is

going to be impor-

tant.”

Molly

“Imagine being bit”

Megan’s comparison

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154

Mitch’s project, “Why does deinonychus run so fast?”

Frank determines which school rules are most important

Determining Importance at a Glance

What’s Key for Kids?

■ Readers distinguish the differences between fiction and nonfiction.

■ Readers distinguish important from unimportant information in

order to identify key ideas or themes as they read.

■ Readers use their knowledge of narrative and expository text features

to make predictions about text organization and content.

■ Readers utilize text features to help them distinguish important from

unimportant information.

■ Readers use their knowledge of important and relevant parts of text

to answer questions and synthesize text for themselves and others.

(Adapted from Keene and PEBC)

Tried and True Texts for Determining Importance in Nonfiction

Series:

Dorling Kindersley Readers, DK Publishing, New York

I Can Read About . . ., Troll Associates, New York

First Discovery Books, Scholastic, New York

Eyewitness Books, Knopf, New York

Newspapers:

Your local paper

Weekly Reader, Box 120033, Stamford, CT 06912

Magazines:

National Geographic for Kids, National Geographic Society, 17th and

M Sts. N.W., Washington, DC 20036

Time for Kids/Big Picture Edition, Time, Inc., Time-Life Building,

1271 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020

Ranger Rick, National Wildlife Federation, 8925 Leesburg Pike,

Vienna, VA 22184

Zoo Books, Wildlife Education Ltd., 9820 Willow Creek Rd., San

Diego, CA 92131

Calliope: World History for Young People, Cobblestone Publishing, 30

Grove St., Peterborough, NH 03458

Kids Discover, 170 Fifth Ave., New York, NY 10010

Cobblestone: The History Magazine for Young People, Cobblestone

Publishing, 30 Grove St., Peterborough, NH 03458

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Chapter 10: Determining Importance in Nonfiction

Field guides:

Peterson Field Guides for Young Naturalists, including volumes on

songbirds, backyard birds, caterpillars, and butterflies. Houghton

Mifflin, Boston, MA.

National Audubon Society First Field Guides, including volumes on

reptiles, weather, trees, shells, amphibians, fishes, rocks and minerals,

insects, and the night sky. Scholastic, New York.

CDs:

First Connections: The Golden Book Encyclopedia. Western Publishing

Co./Josten Learning Corp.

National Geographic Society, various titles (1-800-342-4460)

For a more complete list of resources please see the Appendixes and

References in Strategies That Work: Teaching Comprehension to

Enhance Understanding by Stephanie Harvey and Anne Goudvis.

2000. Stenhouse Publishers, Portland, ME.

Reading with Meaning

156

157

Synthesizing

Information

Writing a note to the

teacher keeps interrup-

tions to a minimum

during conferences.

Emphasizing writing in

response to reading

enhances comprehension.

rank pushes “play” and “Oh, What a Beautiful Morning” blasts out

of the CD player. Whit quickly adjusts the volume, and the class and

I sing our way over to the meeting area. Frank invites us to read the

morning message they’ve written; he points to the words as we read, “Hi,

everybody! Whit and Frank are going to teach a lesson on SYNTHESIS [all

caps, bold print, red marker] today. Are you up for a challenge?”

A chart entitled “Whit and Frank synthesizing Oliver Button Is a

Sissy” is push-pinned to the board. Below the heading they’ve drawn seven

3-by-5-inch rectangles, just the size of their sticky notes, with plus signs

separating each one. After the seventh one, they’ve drawn a big equals sign

with the words “Finl Sinthasis” written after it. I’m not sure exactly what

they’re up to, but I can’t wait to find out. I’m pretty sure it’s going to be

good.

It’s more than good. “You know how we’ve been learning about syn-

thesis?” Whit begins. “Well, Frank and I had so much thinking about it

that we want to share it with you. Frank is going to read Oliver Button Is a

Sissy aloud, and I’m going to show you how we synthesized it. Are you

ready?”

Frank reads the Tomie dePaola story aloud, and on the pages contain-

ing a sticky note, on which is written their synthesis of the story so far,

Whit stops the story, reads the note, and places it in one of the squares (see

Figure 11.1). When they get to the equals sign, Whit says, “So you see how

we got to the final synthesis? We just kept adding on and adding on and

adding on to our thinking. It got bigger and bigger and bigger, and now we

totally know what the book is all about! You might want to try it in your

reading today. Happy reading!”

■■■

My colleagues and I had been studying synthesis for years. We even wrote

an article about it for Language Arts in December 1996. But I never seemed

to get very far with it in the classroom. “Oops!” I’d say. “It’s the middle of

May. No time for synthesis again this year.” (You may guess the real reason

why I never got around to it.) So what changed? What made a difference?

What helped me understand that synthesis is more than just a fancy name

for summary? It was Ellin Keene who asked me questions just like these one

night after school.

She found me with my shoes off, sprawled on the floor, surrounded

by charts and children’s work. I’d spread everything out, thinking about

how I might write this, the last chapter of the book you’re reading, on syn-

thesis. She kicked her shoes off, too, and joined me on the floor. We were

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158

struck by the kids’ work, and she asked me again: “Come on. What made

the difference?”

“It’s the ripple, Ellin,” I answer. “Remember when we were fooling

around with synthesis several years ago, and you launched it with Tea with

Milk by Allen Say? You told me it was simple elements of thought trans-

formed into a complex whole. But you told the kids that synthesis is like

throwing a rock into a pond: first there’s the splash, and then the water

ripples out, making little waves that get bigger and bigger. You likened that

to synthesis, remember? You said that as you read, your thinking evolves as

you encounter new information, and the meaning gets bigger and bigger,

just like the ripples in the pond. I kept playing with that analogy and two

years later, voila!”

Ellin leaves, but I remain sprawled on the floor, still surrounded by

papers, still wondering how best to share what I’ve learned about synthesis.

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Chapter 11: Synthesizing Information

FIGURE 11.1 Whit and Frank’s synthesis

I take a look (again) at Whit’s drawing of Oliver Button with the big red

heart, Ben’s synthesis wheel and his amazing definition, and the synthesis of

The Story of Jumping Mouse that Max has recorded in his notebook. I decide

that the children are the ones who can help me.

Anchor Lessons

Readers monitor overall meaning, important concepts, and

themes as they read, understanding that their thinking evolves

in the process

I explain the ripple in the pond metaphor to the kids, and read and synthe-

size the book Smoky Night for them. That afternoon I transfer my synthesis

word for word (or nearly) onto a chart entitled “Synthesizing Smoky Night

(think aloud by Mrs. Miller)” (see Figure 11.2). I want the children to be

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160

FIGURE 11.2 Synthesizing Smoky Night by Eve Bunting

able to take a closer look at how my thinking evolved as well as help them

begin to track the language of synthesis.

Children catch on quickly—it seems as though we’ve been building

up to this moment all year—and they’re eager to have at it on their own.

Ben asks me to make a record sheet “that has the ripple on it,” and that

night I’m happy to comply. We use the sheet to record the evolution of our

thinking as we read The Alphabet Tree by Leo Lionni, and many later opt to

use it to keep track of how their thinking evolves as they read independ-

ently. (See Bret and Maggie’s written synthesis of A Color of His Own by Leo

Lionni, Figure 11.3.)

Not Ben. He pulls me to the side, thrusts the record sheet my way, and

scrunches up his face. “This isn’t really what I meant,” he tells me, shaking

his head. When I ask him “what he really meant” he says, “Here, let me

show you.” He draws a small circle on the back of the sheet, then another,

larger one around the first; I can tell now he’s going for the full ripple effect.

“I see what you mean, Ben, but won’t it be hard to write in a circle?” I ask

him. “No,” he answers, “it’ll be easy!”

It was. I drew the form to his specifications and Ben tried it out the

next day, requested a few minor adjustments, and was then ready to teach

his classmates how it worked. It was a hit, of course, and not even one child

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Chapter 11: Synthesizing Information

FIGURE 11.3 Bret and Maggie’s synthesis

got dizzy. (As for their teacher? Well . . . have you ever tried reading in a

circle?) Rian and Madi’s synthesis of The Library in Figure 11.4 uses the

form that will forever be known as “Ben’s synthesis wheel.”

“So, Ben,” I ask him several days later, “now that you are such an

expert at synthesizing, how would you define it? How would you explain

synthesis to somebody who didn’t know what it means?” He fumbles for

the words he wants, and finally says, “Let me think about that.”

Fifteen minutes later he seeks me out and hands me a construction

paper circle. “Here, I figured it out,” he tells me. “This is what synthesis is.”

“It’s beautiful, Ben,” I say, admiring the brightly colored blue, orange,

red, and green circles, “but how does this explain synthesis?”

“Let’s sit down,” he says, realizing this may take some time, “and I’ll

explain it to you. See the blue circle in the middle? That’s what you’re think-

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162

FIGURE 11.4 Ben’s synthesis wheel, as rendered by Rian and Madi

ing first. Then see the next circle? The one that’s mostly orange with just a

little bit of blue? It shows how you still keep some of your beginning think-

ing, but when you learn more, you have even more thinking to add to it.

Your thinking gets bigger. See the third circle? It’s got some blue, and some

orange, but it’s mostly red, because now there’s even more new thinking,

you’re going deeper and deeper into the text. And see the next one? It’s

mostly green. You see, the ripple isn’t just a solid line; some of the best think-

ing leaks right on through.” (See the last page of the color insert.)

I’m speechless. Ben, age six, has captured (synthesized?) the nature of

synthesis. Where was he ten years ago when I needed him? (Oh, right—he

wasn’t even born.) I think his work is so brilliant I stop the entire workshop

so Ben can share what he’s done with his classmates. They’re not nearly as

impressed. “We can draw synthesis, too!” they inform me, and they can—

and do. (See pages 169 and 170 for Rian and Madison’s representations of

synthesis.)

Readers retell what they have read as a way of synthesizing

I think of retelling as a fairly literal recounting of what children have read,

learned, and remembered. To give the kids a framework for thinking about

retelling as they synthesize what they’ve read, I teach them to

■ tell what’s important,

■ in a way that makes sense,

■ without telling too much.

When teaching children how to retell as they synthesize fiction, I

model the activity using familiar picture books and fairy tales. The children

already know how stories are organized; their identifying the setting, char-

acters, problem(s), an event or two, and the problem’s resolution help focus

and support their understanding of the book.

When teaching kids to retell information in nonfiction text, the

framework for thinking remains the same, but the focus is on what they

have learned, rather than the elements of story. I show them how to take

notes by writing down only a few important words—just enough to help

them remember what they’ve learned—and ask them to share their learn-

ing, sometimes orally, sometimes in writing, in their own words.

I gradually release responsibility by

■ stopping now and then as I read a story aloud, asking children to get

eye-to-eye and knee-to-knee in order to synthesize the text so far,

then collaborating and charting their thoughts in the whole group;

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Chapter 11: Synthesizing Information

■ asking children to read independently for five or ten minutes, then

stopping them to find a partner and retell the story or what they have

learned in their own words;

■ asking children who are reading the same text to synthesize it when

they finish, then get together and compare their thinking.

I’ve learned that some of the best ways to give children practice and

highlight some of the purposes of retelling occur in the moment. For

example, when Maggie comes back after being absent, I might say,

“Welcome back, Maggie! We read another chapter in My Father’s Dragon

while you were gone. Would you like someone to retell it for you?” Or “We

read a book about the Underground Railroad while you were gone. Who

will synthesize what we learned for Maggie?”

During share time, when a child is talking about a book most of the

class is unfamiliar with, I might say, “Molly, could you synthesize your book

for us? That will help us better understand your point.”

When a child is going on and on about a story, a movie, a sleep-over,

or a play date, I might say, “That sounds so cool [or fun, or interesting]!

Take a minute and see if you can synthesize all that information.

Remember, think about what’s important, tell it in a way that makes sense,

and try hard not to tell too much!”

And I often say at the end of the day, “When you go home today and

your mom or dad says, ‘What happened in school today? What did you

learn?’ what might you say? Let’s synthesize our learning now so you’ll be

ready!”

Readers capitalize on opportunities to share, recommend, and

criticize books they have read

Children recommend books to each other all year long (see the photo at the

start of Chapter 4), and I give them opportunities to synthesize the books

they recommend. I bring in several book reviews from the newspaper, and

together the children and I decide on what information to include and

what form their review will take. Whit’s recommendation of Oliver Button

Is a Sissy is shown in Figure 11.5. His review does a fine job of telling what’s

important in a way that makes sense without telling too much.

Readers extend their synthesis of the literal meaning of a text to

the inferential level

“Lilli, would you like to share your synthesis of the story?” I ask. I’d just

read John Steptoe’s The Story of Jumping Mouse aloud, having paused at cer-

Reading with Meaning

164

tain points for the children to write down their thoughts on the story. “Yes,

thank you,” answers Lilli. (Figure 11.6 shows her writing):

I’m thinking it is about a mouse who is going to go on an adven-

ture to find his dream. But now I’m thinking he will get caught

by the snake and he won’t be able to go on his adventure.

And now I’m thinking he will get to the far-off land with the

help he gets from the animals, and his hope and faith. And

along the way he will meet more animals to give and to get help

from. Maybe it is like a heaven place and he will get his smelling

back and his seeing back and all he things he lost, he will get

back.

And now I’m thinking he will be able to now see and hear

because the magic frog turned him into an eagle and he got back

what he had given away.

I think the lesson is, if you give you will get more than you

gave.

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Chapter 11: Synthesizing Information

FIGURE 11.5 Whit’s review of Oliver Button Is a Sissy by Tomie dePaolo

Figure 11.7 shows Max’s perspective on the same story.

For this lesson, I tell children I will read a story aloud, and that they’ll

be asked to synthesize both during and after the reading. I tell them it doesn’t

matter how they choose to synthesize, only that they do it in a thoughtful,

organized way. Once children have selected the supplies they need, we

regroup in the meeting area and I begin the story. I read for a while, then

stop for them (and me) to synthesize the story up to that point. I repeat the

procedure three or four more times, giving children time at the end to

reflect and connect their thinking into a larger, more meaningful whole.

The Story of Jumping Mouse wasn’t the first story we read this way. I

began with fables. I’d read several familiar ones aloud and do a basic

retelling for the children, thinking aloud about how I infer the lesson, or

moral, of each one. Fables are great here—they’re short and you can do two,

three, or even four in a day, showing children how readers extend their lit-

eral synthesis (of the fable) to an inferential one (the moral or lesson).

Children love listening to fables, sitting with a partner to retell and

infer their lessons, and of course just sharing them. Fables can take over

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166

FIGURE 11.6 Lilli’s synthesis of The Story of Jumping Mouse by John Steptoe

work activity time, too, what with children acting them out, writing their

own, and creating scenes, characters, and events from their favorites with

wooden blocks, Legos, and Beanie Babies.

Once children have worked with fables for a while, I increase the

sophistication of the read-alouds with stories like Lauren Mills’s The Rag

Coat, Byrd Baylor’s The Table Where Rich People Sit, Estelle Condra’s See the

Ocean, John Steptoe’s The Story of Jumping Mouse, and Arnold Lobel’s

Fables. It was right after the Jumping Mouse lesson that Whit and Frank cre-

ated their Oliver Button chart. And as you may imagine, it wasn’t long

before other charts were vying for space on walls, cupboards, and doors.

As I finish this last chapter on synthesis, I’m thinking, as I always do

when I finish a comprehension study, “What worked well? What didn’t?”

and “What might I do differently next year?” I’m also thinking about what

I learned this year about synthesizing and learning from Whit, Ben, Lilli,

and their twenty-four classmates. I’m struck again by their intelligence and

the amazing potential they bring to the classroom.

167

Chapter 11: Synthesizing Information

FIGURE 11.7 Max’s synthesis of The Story of Jumping Mouse by John Steptoe

Ben’s artistic definition of synthesis helped me understand that as

readers encounter new information, it doesn’t necessarily change everything

that has come before. Readers actively revise their synthesis as they read but

“some of the best thinking leaks right on through.” Lilli and Max, through

their synthesis of The Story of Jumping Mouse, taught me that the search for

meaning is different for each child because meaning is constructed from

individual cognitive processes. And Whit’s depiction of Oliver Button and

the words, “Be who you want to be. Trust your heart” showed me that keep-

ing a cognitive synthesis during reading can help the reader identify and

depict themes that connect to the overall meaning of the text.

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168

■ Evidence of Understanding and Independence

“Synthesis is like

inferring, only

super-sized!”

Madi

“If you don’t ever

change your mind,

you’re not really

synthesizing.”

Mitchell

“Synthesizing is like

putting a puzzle

together. You have to

sort out your thinking

and put it in the right

place.”

Cory

Riley’s summer letter, still contemplating synthesis

169

Chapter 11: Synthesizing Information

“Your whole life is a

synthesis. First you are

a baby and you learn

a little bit of stuff.

Then you get older

and learn more and

more and more.”

Frank

“When you synthesize,

it means you are ready

to challenge your

mind.”

Molly

“When you synthesize,

you say in your head,

‘I used to think this,

but now I’m thinking

this.’”

Meghan

“When I synthesize,

my mind is changing,

my ideas are chang-

ing, my thinking is

changing.”

Brendan

Isabella’s synthesis of inferring, as a third grader

Children’s synthesis of The Lazy Bear by Brian Wildsmith

Rian’s definition of synthesis

Reading with Meaning

170

Frank’s definition of synthesis

Madison’s definition of synthesis

Synthesis at a Glance

What’s Key for Kids?

■ Readers monitor overall meaning, important concepts, and themes in

text as they read, understanding that their thinking evolves in the

process.

■ Readers retell what they have read as a way of synthesizing.

■ Readers capitalize on opportunities to share, recommend, and criti-

cize books they have read.

■ Readers extend their synthesis of the literal meaning of a text to the

inferential level.

■ Readers synthesize to understand more clearly what they have read.

(Adapted from Keene and PEBC)

Tried and True Texts for Synthesizing Information

The Alphabet Tree by Leo Lionni

Charlie Anderson by Barbara Abercrombie

Fables by Arnold Lobel

Frederick’s Fables by Leo Lionni

Oliver Button Is a Sissy by Tomie dePaola

The Rag Coat by Lauren Mills

See the Ocean by Estelle Condra

Smoky Night by Eve Bunting

The Story of Jumping Mouse by John Steptoe

The Table Where Rich People Sit by Byrd Baylor

Tea with Milk by Allen Say

171

Chapter 11: Synthesizing Information

This page intentionally left blank

173

In June

t’s a late afternoon in June. The children have gone, and save for a lone

cricket (could it possibly be the same one?) chirping from the bug box

in a faraway corner, the room is quiet. It’s the last day of school, and my

desk is a heap of bath beads and oils, plates of candy and cookies, a pair of

purple dangling earrings, roses, daisies, plants, and gift certificates for

movies, a facial, and—glory be!—a ninety-minute massage.

But I know what lies underneath all the goodies. There are the cumu-

lative records into which I need to glue children’s pictures and record test

scores, a ratty-looking register I must reconcile and ink in, and report cards

I have to mail to those children who are already on summer vacation. And

then there’s the room that needs to be packed up, the plants that need to be

wedged into my trunk for their yearly pilgrimage to their summer home,

and piles of thank-you notes that need to be written and mailed.

What’s a teacher to do? This one makes her way over to the once-white

chair in the corner and settles in to watch the sunlight as it streams in

through the windows. I think about my animal lovers, Irish step dancers,

and Kenny Loggins enthusiasts. I wonder what life will hold for them, and

I wish for a peaceful world that appreciates all they have to offer.

Gone are the interviews and portraits with their too-high-on-the-fore-

head eyes, crinkled-paper hair, glued-on earrings, and bright red lips that

once smiled back at me. Crayons and pencils, once pointed and lying just

so, are but little nubs of lead and wax. Picture frames that held the smiles of

this year’s girls and boys are empty. And I’m feeling, as I always do this time

of year, just a little empty myself.

Epilogue:

My eye catches the dry-erase board across the way. “Dear First

Graders,” it reads. “Welcome to first grade! You are going to LOVE it!!!

Love, the Second Graders.”

Taped right below the message is a poem entitled “Like Magic.”

Just when I’m about to get misty, Ellie, whom I’ve known since she

was three, races into the room and jumps into my arms. “I’m in first grade

now!” she proclaims. “And guess what? You get to be my teacher!”

Reading with Meaning

174

175

References

Children’s Literature

Abercrombie, Barbara. 1990. Charlie Anderson. New York: M. K. McElderry Books.

Adoff, Arnold. 2000. Touch the Poem. New York: Blue Sky Press.

Aliki. 1975. The Two of Them. New York: Mulberry Books.

Altman, Linda Jacobs. 1993. Amelia’s Road. New York: Lee & Low Books.

Arnold, Tedd. 1987. No Jumping on the Bed. New York: Penguin.

Atwater, Richard, and Florence Atwater. 1938. Mr. Popper’s Penguins. Boston: Little,

Brown.

Avi. 1995. Poppy. New York: Orchard Books.

———. 1998. Poppy and Rye. New York: Avon Books.

Barchas, Sarah. 1975. I Was Walking Down the Road. New York: Scholastic.

Baylor, Byrd. 1994. The Table Where Rich People Sit. New York: Macmillan.

Bentley, Dawn. 1998. The Three Little Pigs. Kansas City, MO: Piggy Toes Press.

Berger, Barbara. 1984. Grandfather Twilight. New York: Philomel Books.

———. 1997. A Lot of Otters. New York: Penguin Putnam.

Brinkloe, Julie. 1986. Fireflies. Chicago: Scott Foresman.

Brothers Grimm. (Retold by Barbara Cooney.) 1965. Snow White and Rose Red. New

York: Delacorte Press.

Brown, Marc Tolon. 1985. Hand Rhymes. New York: E. P. Dutton.

Brutschy, Jennifer. 1993. Winter Fox. New York: Knopf.

Bunting, Eve. 1988. How Many Days to America? A Thanksgiving Story. New York:

Clarion Books.

———. 1991. Fly Away Home. New York: Clarion Books.

———. 1994. Smoky Night. San Diego: Harcourt Brace.

———. 2001. The Wall. New York: Clarion Books.

Carlstrom, Nancy White. 1987. Wild, Wild Sunflower Child. New York: Macmillan.

———. 1993. What Does the Rain Play?New York: Macmillan.

Coffelt, Nancy. 1993. Dogs in Space. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Condra, Estelle. 1994. See the Ocean.Nashville, TN: Ideals Children’s Books.

dePaola, Tomie. 1975. Strega Nona. New York: Prentice Hall.

———. 1979. Oliver Button Is a Sissy.San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

———. 1988. Now One Foot, Now the Other.New York: Trumpet Club.

Dodd, Anne Westcott. 1992. Footprints and Shadows.New York: Simon & Schuster

Books for Young Readers.

Donnelly, Judy. 1987. The Titanic Lost and Found.New York: Random House.

———. 1988. Tut’s Mummy Lost and Found.New York: Random House.

Downs, Robert Bingham. 1964. The Bear Went over the Mountain.New York:

Macmillan.

Dussling, Jennifer. 1998. Bugs! Bugs! Bugs!New York: DK Publishers.

Finch, Mary. 2001. The Three Billy Goats Gruff.New York: Barefoot Books.

Fox, Mem. 1988. Koala Lou.San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

———. 1994. Tough Boris.San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Francen, Mike. 1999. I Have a Dream. Tulsa, OK: Francen World Outreach

Publications.

Gagliardi, Maria Francesca. 1969. The Magic Fish.New York: Putnam.

Galdone, Paul. 1977. The Taileypo.Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Gannet, Ruth Stiles. 1997. [1948]. My Father’s Dragon.New York: Random House.

———. 1987. My Father the Dragon Series. New York: Random House.

Garland, Sherry. 1993. The Lotus Seed.San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Gibbons, Gail. 1989. Monarch Butterfly.New York: Holiday House.

Greenfield, Eloise. 1978. Honey, I Love, and Other Love Poems.New York: Crowell.

Grindley, Sally. 1997. Why Is the Sky Blue? New York: Simon & Schuster Books for

Young Readers.

Hansel and Gretel.England: Ladybird.

Harris, Beth Coombe. 1993. Little Green Frog.Lewisville, TX: School of Tomorrow.

Heard, Georgia. 1992. Creatures of Earth, Sea, and Sky.Honesdale, PA: Wordsong.

Henkes, Kevin. 1991. Chrysanthemum. New York: Greenwillow Books.

Hill, Barbara Tinker. 1976. The Little Yellow Duck.[n.p.]

Hoffman, Mary. 1991. Amazing Grace.New York: Dial Books for Young Readers.

Houston, Gloria. 1992. My Great-Aunt Arizona.New York: HarperCollins.

Howard, Jane R. 1985. When I’m Sleepy.New York: Dutton.

Keats, Ezra Jack. 1996. The Snowy Day.New York: Viking Press.

Kilborne, Sarah S. 1994. Peach and Blue.New York: Knopf.

Kramer, S. A. 1997. Ice Stars.New York: Grosset and Dunlap.

Kraus, Robert. 1970. Whose Mouse Are You?New York: Aladdin Books.

———. 1986. Where Are You Going, Little Mouse?New York: Greenwillow Books.

Langstaff, John M. 1974. Oh, a Hunting We Will Go.New York: Atheneum.

LeGuin, Ursula. 1988. Catwings. New York: Orchard Books.

Lewis, C. S. 2000. The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe.New York: HarperCollins.

Levy, David H., ed. 1996. Stars and Planets.New York: Time-Life Books.

Lindgren, Astrid. 1950. Pippi Longstocking.Trans. by Florence Lamborn. New York:

Viking Press.

Reading with Meaning

176

Lionni, Leo. 1968. The Alphabet Tree. New York: Pantheon.

———. 1975. A Color of His Own. New York: Pantheon Books.

———. 1985. Frederick’s Fables: A Leo Lionni Treasury of Favorite Stories. New York:

Pantheon Books.

Littledale, Freya. 1966. The Magic Fish. New York: Scholastic.

Lobel, Arnold. 1972. Mouse Tales. New York: Harper & Row.

———. 1977. Mouse Soup. New York: Harper & Row.

———. 1980. Fables. New York: HarperTrophy.

Long, Sylvia. 2000. Hush Little Baby. San Francisco: Chronicle Books.

Marshak, Suzanna. 1991. I Am the Ocean. New York: Arcade Publishers.

Martin, Bill, Jr., and John Archambault. 1989. Chika Chika Boom Boom. New York:

Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers.

Marzollo, Jean. 1978. Close Your Eyes. New York: Dial Press.

Mayer, Mercer. 1977. Just Me and My Dad. Racine, WI: Western.

Mazer, Anne. 1991. The Salamander Room. New York: Knopf.

McLerran, Alice. 1992. Roxaboxen. New York: Puffin Books.

McKissack, Patricia. 1986. Flossie and the Fox. New York: Dial Books for Young

Readers.

McKissack, Patricia, and Frederick McKissack. 1944. The Little Yellow Duck.

Danbury, CT: Children’s Press.

Mellonie, Bryan, and Robert Ingpen. 1983. Lifetimes: A Beautiful Way to Explain

Death to Children. New York: Bantam Books.

Merriam, Eve. 1992. Goodnight to Annie: An Alphabet Lullaby. New York: Hyperion

Books for Children.

———. 1993. Quiet, Please. New York: Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers.

———. 1999. The Wise Woman and Her Secret. New York: Aladdin Picture Books.

Mills, Lauren. 1991. The Rag Coat. Boston: Little, Brown.

Milton, Joyce. 1992. Wild, Wild Wolves. New York: Random House.

Minarik, Else Holmelund. 1957. Little Bear. New York: Harper and Row.

Mountain Streams: Nature’s Relaxing Sounds. 1999. Sounds of Nature. Masters Series.

Compact disc.

Munsch, Robert N. 1980. The Paper Bag Princess. Toronto: Annick Press.

Muse, Clarence. 1932. Way Down South. Hollywood, CA: D. G. Fischer.

My First Real Mother Goose Board Book. 2000. New York: Scholastic.

Opie, Iona, ed. 1999. Here Comes Mother Goose. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick.

Oppenheim, Shulamith Levey. 1999. Yanni Rubbish. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press.

Park, Frances, and Ginger Park. 2000. The Royal Bee. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills

Press.

Parish, Peggy. 1985. Amelia Bedelia Goes Camping. New York: Morrow.

Penn, Audrey. 1993. The Kissing Hand. Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of

America.

Raffi. 1989. Five Little Ducks. Illus. by Jose Aruego and Ariane Dewey. New York:

Crown.

Robinson, Martha. 1995. The Zoo at Night. New York: Margaret K. McElderry Books.

Rosen, Michael. 1990. Little Rabbit Foo Foo. New York: Simon & Schuster Books for

Young Readers.

177

References

Rylant, Cynthia. 1983. Miss Maggie. New York: Dutton.

———. 1985. The Relatives Came. New York: Bradbury Press.

———. 1988. All I See. New York: Orchard Books.

———. 1991. Night in the Country. New York: Macmillan.

———. 1992. An Angel for Solomon Singer. New York: Orchard Books.

Saunders, Dave, and Julie Saunders. 1990. Dibble and Dabble. New York: Bradbury

Press.

Say, Allen. 1993. Grandfather’s Journey. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

———. 1999. Tea with Milk. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Sendak, Maurice. 1962. Chicken Soup with Rice: A Book of Months. Nutshell Library.

New York: HarperCollins.

———. 1963. Where the Wild Things Are. New York: Harper & Row.

Seuss, Dr. 1963. Dr. Seuss’s ABC’s. New York: Beginner Books.

Shaw, Charles Green. 1947. It Looked Like Spilt Milk. New York: Harper.

Squire, Ann. 2002. Gemstones. New York: Children’s Press.

Steptoe, John. 1972. The Story of Jumping Mouse: A Native American Legend. New

York: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard.

Stewart, Sarah. 1995. The Library. New York: HarperCollins.

Stock, Catherine. 1993. Where Are You Going, Manyoni? New York: Morrow Junior

Books.

Stoltz, Mary. 1993. Say Something. New York: HarperCollins.

Taylor, Barbara. 1999. Nature Watch Spiders. New York: Lorenz Books.

Thomas, Shelley Moore. 1995. Putting the World to Sleep. Boston: Houghton

Mifflin.

Van Allsburg, Chris. 1986. The Stranger. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Waber, Bernard. 1972. Ira Sleeps Over. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Wang, Mary Lewis. 1989. The Ant and the Dove: An Aesop Tale Retold. Chicago:

Children’s Press.

Ward, Cindy. 1988. Cookie’s Week. New York: Putnam.

Wells, Rosemary. 1981. Timothy Goes to School. New York: Dial Books for Young

Readers.

———. 1985. Hazel’s Amazing Mother. New York: Dial Books for Young Readers.

———. 1994. Night Sounds, Morning Colors. New York: Dial Books for Young

Readers.

Westcott, Nadine Bernard. 1998. The Lady with the Alligator Purse. Boston: Little,

Brown.

White, E. B. 1970. The Trumpet of the Swan. New York: Harper & Row.

———. 1999. Stuart Little. New York: HarperTrophy.

Wildsmith, Brian. 1973. The Lazy Bear. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wood, Audrey. 1984. The Napping House. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

———. 1992. Twenty-Four Robbers. England: Childs Play International.

———. 2001. Heckedy Peg. Saint Paul: Minnesota Humanities Commission.

Wyeth, Sharon Dennis. 1998. Something Beautiful. New York: Doubleday Books for

Young Readers.

Yolen, Jane. 1991. Greyling. New York: Philomel Books.

———. 1981. Sleeping Ugly. New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan.

Reading with Meaning

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———. 1996. Mother Earth, Father Sky. Honesdale, PA: Wordsong/Boyds Mills

Press.

———. 2000. Color Me a Rhyme. Honesdale, PA: Wordsong/Boyds Mills Press.

Zolotow, Charlotte. 1972. William’s Doll. New York: Harper & Row.

———. 1980. If You Listen. New York: Harper & Row.

———. 1984. I Know a Lady. New York: Puffin Books.

Professional Literature

Anderson, R. C., and P. D. Pearson. 1984. “A Schema-Theoretic View of Basic

Processes in Reading.” In Handbook of Reading Research, ed. P. D. Pearson.

White Plains, NY: Longman.

Block, Cathy, and Michael Pressley, eds. 2002. Comprehension Instruction: Research-

Based Practices. New York: Guilford Press.

Brown, A. L., J. D. Day, and E. S. Jones. 1983. “The Development of Plans for

Summarizing Texts.” Child Development 54: 968–979.

Calkins, Lucy. 1983. Lessons from a Child. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Duffy, G., L. Roehler, and G. Herrmann. 1988. “Modeling Mental Processes Helps

Poor Readers Become Strategic Readers.” Reading Teacher 41: 762–767.

Fielding, Linda, and P. David Pearson. 1994. “Reading Comprehension: What

Works?” Educational Leadership 51, 5: 62–67.

Hansen, Jane. 1981. “The Effects of Inference Training and Practice on Young

Children’s Reading Comprehension.” Reading Research Quarterly 16: 391–417.

Harvey, Stephanie, and Anne Goudvis. 2000. Strategies That Work: Teaching

Comprehension to Enhance Understanding. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.

Heard, Georgia. 1989. For the Good of the Earth and Sun. Portsmouth, NH:

Heinemann.

Keene, Ellin, and Susan Zimmermann. 1997. Mosaic of Thought: Teaching

Comprehension in a Reader’s Workshop. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Moline, Steve. 1995. I See What You Mean: Children at Work with Visual Information.

Portland, ME: Stenhouse.

Palinscar, A. M., and A. L. Brown. 1984. “Reciprocal Teaching of Comprehension

Fostering and Monitoring Activities.” Italics Cognition and Instruction 1:

117–175.

Pearson, P. David, and M. C. Gallagher. 1983. “The Instruction of Reading

Comprehension.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 8: 317–344.

Pearson, P. David, J. A. Dole, G. G. Duffy, and L. R. Roehler. 1992. “Developing

Expertise in Reading Comprehension: What Should Be Taught and How

Should It Be Taught?” In What Research Has to Say to the Teacher of Reading 2d

ed., ed. J. Farstup and S. J. Samuels. Newark, DE: International Reading

Association.

Perkins, David. 1993. “Creating a Culture of Thinking.” Educational Leadership 51,

3: 98–99.

179

References

Pressley, G. M. 1976. “Mental Imagery Helps Eight-Year-Olds Remember What

They Read.” Journal of Educational Psychology 68: 355–359.

Raphael, T. E. 1984. “Teaching Learners About Sources of Information for

Answering Questions.” Journal of Reading 27: 303–311.

Reading with Meaning

180

181

Index

Abercrombie, Barbara, 171

Adams, Marilyn, 2

Adoff, Arnold, 34

Aliki, 65, 72

Allington, Richard, 2

All I See (Rylant), 130, 140

Alphabet Tree, The (Lionni), 161, 171

Altman, Linda Jacobs, 133–34, 140

Amazing Grace (Hoffman), 21, 63–65, 98

Amelia Bedelia Goes Camping (Parish), 70,

132

Amelia’s Road (Altman), 133–34, 140

anchor charts

creating, 57

for text-to-self connections, 60–61

anchor lessons, 19

inferences, 107–16

for mental images, 80–86

questioning, 125–36

synthesis, 160–68

Anderson. R. C., 107

Angel for Solomon Singer, An (Rylant), 98,

132–33, 140

Angelou, Maya, 74

Ant and the Dove, The (Wang), 46

Arnold, Tedd, 70

artifacts, evaluation through, 48

artistic responses, mental images and,

80–85

Ask Jeeves, 151

Atwater, Florence, 28

Atwater, Richard, 28

Atwell, Nancie, xii, 2

authors, schema for, 67

Avi, 28

Barchas, Sarah, 89

Bartels, Joanie, 17, 26

baseline assessment, 48

Baylor, Byrd, 98, 167, 171

Bear Went over the Mountain (Downs), 46

behavior, 18–20

belief statements, vii–ix

making explicit, 6

Berger, Barbara, 98, 121, 140

“Biographies” book tub, 1

book baskets

songbooks, 1

teacher selections for, 26–27

book clubs, 96–98

book selection for, 97–98

grouping children from, 98

book selection

active engagement and, 40–41

book selection (cont.)

for book clubs, 97–98

book talks and, 45

conferences and, 46

considerations in, 40–44

content and, 41

difficulty level and, 40, 43–44

libraries and, 47

for making inferences, 121

for making personal connections, 55

for making predictions, 109–10

for mental images, 80, 92

mini-lessons on, 40

motivation and, 41, 42–43

nonfiction, 155–56

praising student choices, 46–47

providing choices for, 45

quality vs. quantity, 47

for questioning, 140

for read-alouds, 45

recommendations for, 45

recommending charts, 45

schema and, 41–42, 53

for schema (prior knowledge), 72

sticky notes and, 45

by students, 27, 39–47

student-teacher browsing, 45

for synthesis, 171

by teachers, 26–27

for think-alouds, 55

variety and, 41, 43–44

books

active engagement in, 40–41

“challenging,” 44

children’s knowledge of, 15

collections of, 1

“easy,” 44

engaging, 25

exploring variety of, 26

“just right,” 44

professional, 2

bookshelves, 1

book talks, book selection for, 45

Bradley, James, 116

Brinkloe, Julie, 59, 72, 116, 121

Brown, Mark Tolon, 34, 39

Bugs! Bugs! Bugs! (Dussling), 145

Bunting, Eve, 54, 66, 67, 98, 114, 121,

128, 140, 160, 171

Calkins, Lucy, xii, 2, 7

Calliope: World History for Young People,

155

calmness, of teachers, 19

Cambourne, Brian, 2, 6

captions, in nonfiction, 149

Carlstrom, Nancy White, 92

Catwings (LeGuin), 136

CDs, 156

“challenging” reading, 44

“Changes of the World, The” (student

poem, Zachary), 75

chapter books, 47

Charlie Anderson (Abercrombie), 171

charts

anchor, 57, 60–61

recording text-to-self connections on,

60–61

recording thinking processes in, 56–57

of student thinking, 5

Chicken Soup with Rice (Sendak), 1, 34

Chika Chika Boom Boom (Martin and

Archambault), 1

choice. See also book selection

importance of, 40, 103–4

Chrysanthemum (Henkes), 59

classroom

bookshelves, 1

distractions in, mini-lessons on, 32–33

meeting area, 1

prepared for first day of school, 1–2

supplies, 3

writing table, 2

Clay, Marie, 48

close-ups, in nonfiction, 149

Close Your Eyes (Marzollo), 92

cloze activities, 51

Cobblestone: The History Magazine for

Young People, 155

Coffeehouse Poetry Day, 73, 74–77, 94

Coffelt, Nancy, 88

collaboration, 95

Reading with Meaning

182

Color Me a Rhyme (Yolen), 92

Color of His Own, A (Lionni), 161

community building, 16–23

creating a culture and climate for think-

ing, 17

mutual trust, 20–23

in September, 27

through singing, 17

comparisons, in nonfiction, 149, 153

comprehension

decoding vs., 48, 52

evaluation of, 48–49

comprehension instruction

explicit, xii

gradual release of responsibility model,

principles guiding, 6–7

proficient reader research, 8–10

Comprehension Instruction: Research-Based

Practices (Pearson and Duke), 50

comprehension strategies

metacognitive thinking about, 9

of proficient readers, 8

conclusions, schema and, 111

Condra, Estelle, 167, 171

conferences

book selection and, 46

explicit instruction in, 33–36

teacher feedback through, 11

time allowed for, 7

connections

evaluation of, 62–63

explicit instruction on, 58–63

gradual release of responsibility model

and, 61–63

mini-lessons on, 60–61

as source of answers to questions, 130

text-to-self, 55–63, 119

text-to-text, 63–65

text-to-world, 66–67

through group discussion, 95

Venn diagrams for, 65

Conniff, Richard, 147

content, book selection and, 41

Convention Notebooks, 148–50

conventions, nonfiction, 148–50

conversation. See discussion

Cookie’s Week (Ward), 21

Cooney, Barbara, 88

creative environments, 7

Creatures of Earth, Sea, and Sky (Heard),

80, 92, 112–13, 121

critical judgments, 8

curriculum mandates, working with, 6

cutaways, in nonfiction, 149

dance response, 102

Daniels, Harvey, 2

“Deadlysilk” (Conniff), 147

decoding, comprehension vs., 48, 52

dePaola, Tomie, 21, 63, 65, 72, 98, 101,

116, 121, 137, 158, 171

Dibble and Dabble (Saunders and

Saunders), 117

difficulty level

book selection and, 40

variety in, 43–44

discussion, 94–104

book clubs, 96–98

connections through, 95

inferences and, 95

practicing conversation, 37–38

questioning strategies, 95

of questions about text, 132–33

thoughtful, 94–96

Dodd, Anne Wescott, 92

Dogs in Space (Coffelt), 88

Dole, J. A., 8

“Dolphins” (student poem, Abby), 74

Donnelly, Judy, 5, 93, 98

Dorling Kindersley Readers, 155

Downs, Robert Bingham, 46

Dr. Seuss’s ABC’s (Seuss), 1, 34, 50

dramatic responses, 102

interpretation through, 111–13

mental images, 81–82

“Dressing Like a Snake” (Heard), 112–13

“Ducks on a Winter Night” (Heard),

82–83

Duffy, G. G., 8

DuMoulin, Michelle, 148–49

Dussling, Jennifer, 145

183

Index

“easy” reading, 44

engagement

book selection and, 40–41

variety and, 43

enthusiasm, 34

evaluation

record keeping for, 48–49

of student text-to-self connections,

62–63

by teachers, 48–49

Evans, Dale, 17

explicit belief statements, 6

explicit instruction

about words, 50–53

comprehension, xii

in conferences, 33–36

on connections, 58–63

reading, 6, 10

on text-to-self connections, 58–63

on think-alouds, 54–55

expository text. See also nonfiction

predictable features of, 145–47

eye-to-eye and knee-to-knee, 56, 146

Eyewitness Books, 155

fables, 166–67

Fables (Lobel), 167, 171

“Fairy Tales” book tub, 1

fiction. See also books; book selection

determining importance in, 142

exploring variety of, 26

identifying, 146

nonfiction vs., 144–46, 144–47

organization of, 144–45

field guides, 156

Fireflies (Brinkloe), 59, 72, 116, 121

First Connections: The Golden Book

Encyclopedia, 151, 156

First Discovery Books, 155

Fisher, Aileen, 74

Five Little Ducks (Raffi), 1, 28, 34, 38

Flags of Our Fathers (Bradley), 43, 44,

116

Fletcher, Ralph, 2

Flossie and the Fox (McKissack), 87

Fly Away Home (Bunting), 121, 140

focus

allowing time for, 63

in think-alouds, 55

Footprints and Shadows (Dodd), 92

For the Good of the Earth and Sun (Heard),

121

Fox, Mem, 59, 72

Francen, Mike, 67

“Frog and Toad” books, 42

Galdone, Paul, 138

Gallagher, M. C., 10

Gannet, Ruth Stiles, 28, 73

Garland, Sherry, 98, 127, 140

Gemstones (Squire), 34–36, 37–38

Gibbons, Gail, 131, 140

glossaries, 149

Goodnight to Annie (Merriam), 92

Goudvis, Anne, 2

gradual release of responsibility model, 6,

10–13

locating information in nonfiction

books, 150–51

for nonfiction predictions, 146

planning for, 12–13

strategy instruction using, 13

synthesis, 163–64

text-to-self connections, 61–63

Grandfather’s Journey (Say), 144–45

Grandfather Twilight (Berger), 98, 121,

125–26, 140

Graves, Donald, xii, 2

Greenfield, Eloise, 74

Greyling, The (Yolan), 83–84, 92

Grindley, Sally, 140

group work. See small-group work

guided practice, 10–11

Hagerty, Pat, xii

Hand Rhymes (Brown), 34, 39

Hansel and Gretel, 70

“Happy Trails to You,” 17

Harris, Beth Coombe, 46

Harry Potter series, 86, 91

Harvey, Stephanie, xii, 2, 21–22, 147–48

Harwayne, Shelley, xi, xii, 2

Reading with Meaning

184

Hazel’s Amazing Mother (Wells), 60, 61, 72

Heard, Georgia, 2, 74, 80, 82, 92, 112,

121

Heckedy Peg (Wood), 102

“Henry” (student poem, Olivia), 75

Hindley, Joanne, 2

Hoffman, Mary, 21, 63, 98

Honey, I Love (Greenfield), 21

“Hot Tubs” (student poem, Griffin), 76

Hours, The, 44

Houston, Gloria, 59, 72

Howard, Jane R., 92

How Many Days to America? (Bunting),

67, 98, 114–15, 121, 128

Hush Little Baby (Long), 45

Hutchins, Chryse, 44, 106

I Am the Ocean (Marshak), 92

I Can Read About . . ., 155

I Have a Dream (Francen), 67

I Know a Lady (Zolotow), 69, 72

I Read It, but I Don’t Get It (Tovani), 43–44

I See What You Mean (Moline), 146–47

I Was Walking Down the Road (Barchas),

Ice Stars (Kramer), 90

“Icicles” (student poem, Caroline), 75

ideas, determining importance of, 8

If You Listen (Zolotow), 116, 121

importance, determining, 8, 142, 143

independence

in asking questions, 136–39

in determining importance in nonfic-

tion, 152–54

in guided release of responsibility

model, 10, 11

guiding children toward, 10, 23

in making inferences, 117–20

in reading nonfiction, 151

in synthesizing information, 168–71

in use of mental images, 86–91

in use of schema, 69–71

work activity time and, 103–4

indexes, 149

inferences, 105–21

anchor lessons, 107–16

book selection for, 121

drawing from text, 8

evidence of understanding and inde-

pendence, 117–20

importance of, 107

improving discussion with, 95

key points, 121

learning word meanings through, 107–9

predictions vs., 107

questions for, 114–15

riddles and, 113–14

as source of answers to questions,

127–30

in synthesis, 164–68

synthesis and, 168, 169

text selection for, 121

two-column notes for, 105–6, 113

Ingpen, Robert, 67

inner voice, when learning, 147–48

“Insects” book tub, 1

inspiration, from questions of other,

131–33

interests, of students, 41

interpretations, 8

in answering questions about text,

130–31

gaining perspective through, 116

mental images and, 81–82

schema and, 111, 115–16

through dramatic expression, 111–13

interruptions, mini-lessons on, 32–33

Ira Sleeps Over (Waber), 62, 72

It Looked Like Spilt Milk (Shaw), 34

Just Me and My Dad (Meyer), 70

“just right” reading, 44

Keats, Ezra Jack, 59, 72

Keene, Ellin, xii, 2, 8, 9, 158–59

Kids Discover, 155

Kilborne, Sarah, 120

Kissing Hand, The (Penn), 2

Koala Lou (Fox), 59, 72

Kramer, S. A., 90

Kraus, Robert, 21

labels, in nonfiction, 149

185

Index

Lady with the Alligator Purse, The

(Westcott), 1, 34, 46

Langstaff, John, 28

language, precise, in think-alouds, 55

Language Arts magazine, 43, 44, 158

Lazy Bear, The (Wildsmith), 169

learning

from children, 124–25

gradual release of responsibility model

and, 10

inner voice response to, 147–48

nonfiction books and, 142

social nature of, 132

“Learn to Read” books, 42

“Leaves” (student poem, Madison and

Camille), 76–77

Lego activities, 102

LeGuin, Ursula, 136

Levy, David, 90, 91

libraries

children’s collections, 47

learning how to use, 151

Library, The, 162

Lifetimes (Mellonie and Ingpen), 67

Lindgren, Astrid, 28

Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe, The

(Lewis), 87–89

Lionni, Leo, 161, 171

listening

active, 94–95

to read-alouds, 26

showing children how to think about,

19–20

to students, 18

literacy achievement,

evaluation of, 48–49

literacy instruction, quality of, ix

literate environments, 23

“Little Bear” books, 1, 44

Little Bear (Minarik), 87

Little Bear’s Friend (Minarik), 44

Littledale, Freya, 98, 139

Little Green Frog (Harris), 46

Little Rabbit Foo Foo (Rosen), 1, 28, 34

Little Yellow Duck, The, 46

Lobel, Arnold, 167, 171

London, Jonathan, 127

Long, Sylvia, 45

Lotus Seed, The (Garland), 98, 127–30,

140

magazines, 155

Magic Fish, The (Littledale), 98, 139

magnetic letters, 2, 3

mandated curriculum, working with, 6

manners

behavior, 18–20

share time and, 15

maps, in nonfiction, 149

Marshak, Suzanna, 92

Marzollo, Jean, 92

Mazer, Anne, 79, 92

McKissack, Patricia, 87

McLerran, Alice, 70, 72

meeting area, 1

Mellonie, Bryan, 67

mental images, 74–92

adapting during reading, 83–84

anchor lessons, 80–86

artistic responses, 80–85

book selection for, 92

dramatic responses, 81–82

evidence of understanding and

independence, 86–91

interpretations and, 81–82

key points, 91–92

reader’s schema and, 80–81

as source of answers to questions,

129–30

student understanding of, 86–91

text selection for, 80

thinking aloud about, 77–80

through poetry, 74–77

value of, 77

writing about, 84–86

Merriam, Eve, 79, 92, 140

metacognitive thinking, 9

Meyer, Mercer, 70

Miller, Debbie, vii–ix

Mills, Lauren, 167, 171

Milton, Joyce, 21, 98

Minarik, Else Holmelund, 44, 87

Reading with Meaning

186

mini-lessons, 29–33

on book selection, 40

on classroom distractions, 32–33

on readers’ workshop procedures, 32

on sticky notes, 33

on text-to-self connections, 60–61

time allowed for, 7

Miss Maggie (Rylant), 67, 116, 121

modeling, by parents

book clubs, 96–98

modeling, by students

motivation and, 33

modeling, by teachers

planning, 54–55

readers’ workshop behaviors, 26

reading behaviors, 10, 11, 31–33

reflective thinking, 37

response, 100

value of, 31

Moline, Steve, 146–47

Monarch Butterfly (Gibbons), 131, 140

monitoring, teacher role in, 22–23

moral issues, text-to world connections,

66–67

Mother Earth, Father Sky (Yolen), 121

motivation

book selection and, 41, 42–43

importance of, 21

read-alouds and, 42

student interest and, 41

student modeling and, 33

Mountain Streams (CD), 84–86, 92

Mouse Soup (Lobel), 44

Mouse Tales (Lobel), 44

Mr. Popper’s Penguins (Atwater and

Atwater), 28

mutual trust, 20–23

My Father the Dragon series (Gannet),

28, 73

My First Real Mother Goose, 1

My Great-Aunt Arizona (Houston), 59, 72

Napping House, The (Wood), 80, 92

National Audubon Society First Field

Guides, 156

National Geographic, 147

National Geographic for Kids, 155

Nature Watch Spider (Taylor), 145

needs-based support groups, 49

newspapers, 155

Night in the Country (Rylant), 79, 92

Night Sounds, Morning Colors (Wells), 77,

82, 92

No Jumping on the Bed (Arnold), 70

nonfiction, 149–56

book selection for, 155–56

characteristics of, 145–47, 151

conventions of, 148–50

determining importance in, 142, 143

evidence of understanding and inde-

pendence, 152–54

exploring variety of, 26, 142–43

fiction vs., 144–47, 151

identifying, 146

interest in, 142–43

key points, 155

locating specific information, 150–51

prediction strategies, 145–47

questioning about, 143–44

reading order, 147

synthesis, 163

using features of, 142

notebooks

for book clubs, 97

Convention Notebooks, 148–50

recording text-to-self connections in,

recording thinking processes in, 56–57

for response, 99

for tracking student evaluations, 48–49

noticing, relationship-building through,

18, 27

“Now I get it!” stage, 11

Now One Foot, Now the Other (dePaola),

65, 72

Nye, Naomi Shihab, 44

observations

by students, 30–31

by teachers, 22

Oh, a Hunting We Will Go (Langstaff), 1,

187

Index

“Oh, What a Beautiful Morning,” 158

group singing of, 17

as a signal for readers’ workshop to

begin, 26

Oliver Button Is a Sissy (dePaola), 21,

63–65, 72, 94, 98, 101, 116, 121,

164, 168–70, 171

“One Earth,” 36

open-ended responses, 99

Oppenheim, Shulamith Levey, 140

organization

of fiction, 144–45

of nonfiction, 144–45

“Our Promise to Each Other,” 17, 67

outside sources, as source of answers to

questions, 128–29

Paper Bag Princess, The (Munsch), 21

parents

book club modeling with, 97

letters about their children, 16

notes from, 3

respect for teachers by, 6

sharing books with, 28

songbooks and, 28

Parish, Peggy, 70, 132

Park, Frances, 110, 121

Park, Ginger, 110, 121

Peach and Blue (Kilborne), 120

Pearson, P. David, 8, 10, 14, 50, 107

PEBC. See Public Education and Business

Coalition (PEBC)

pencil sharpeners mini-lesson, 32

Penn, Audrey, 2

personal experience, predictions based on,

perspectives, gaining through interpreta-

tion, 116

Peterson, Ralph, 2

Peterson Field Guide for Young Naturalists,

156

phonics, 49–52

photographs, in nonfiction, 149

picture books, 1

Pinnell, Gay Su, 2

Pippi Longstocking (Lindgren), 28

planning

adapting, 14, 21–22

for gradual release of responsibility

model, 12–13

think-alouds, 54–55

poetry

Coffeehouse Poetry Day, 74–77

creating mental images from, 74–77,

80–83

dramatic interpretation of, 81–82,

112–13

exploring variety of, 26

by students, 74–77

“Poetry” book tub, 1

Poppy (Avi), 28

Poppy and Rye (Avi), 28

“Poppy” (student poem, Cory), 76

Post-its. See sticky notes

Power, Brenda, 2

“Predictable Books” book tub, 1

predictable environments, 7

predictions

based on personal experience, 93

book selection for, 109–10

confirming, 111

for fiction, 144–45

inferences vs., 107

making about text, 109–11

for nonfiction, 145–47

rereading text for, 111

student reasons for, 111

two-column notes for, 111

print types, in nonfiction, 149

prior knowledge. See also schema (prior

knowledge)

activation of, 8

motivation and, 41

professional books, 2, 22

professional development, 22

proficient reader research, 8–10

Public Education and Business Coalition

(PEBC), xi

Putting the World to Sleep (Thomas), 92

questioning, 124–40

about nonfiction, 143–44

Reading with Meaning

188

anchor lessons, 125–36

before, during, and after read-alouds,

125–26, 128

book selection for, 140

determining source of answers, 127–30

discussion of, 132–33

evidence of understanding and inde-

pendence, 136–40

improving discussion with, 95

for inferences, 114–15

inspiration from, 131–34

interpretation and, 130–31

key points, 140

learning from children, 124–25

locating specific information in nonfic-

tion, 150

in personal lives, 134–35

purposeful, 125–26

by readers, 8

reasons for, 126–27

strategies, 102

uses of, 134–35

wondering, 124–25

questioning webs, 123, 136

reader’s interpretation and, 131, 132

Quiet Please (Merriam), 79, 92

Rag Coat, The (Mills), 167, 171

Ranger Rick, 155

readability, book selection and, 40

read-alouds, 27–29

book selection and, 45

motivation and, 42

opportunities for, 28–29

questions asked before, during, and

after, 125–26, 128

songbooks for, 27–28

synthesis during and after, 166

value of, 29

Reader Observation Survey, 48

readers

inferences by, 114–15

interpretations by, 115–16

questioning by, 125–35

student observations of, 29–31, 38

thinking about self as, 7–8

thinking processes of, 57

readers’ workshop, 26–38

activities in, 34–36

components of, 10–11

daily, 7

early reader activities, 34

mini-lessons, 29–33

opportunities for thinking about self as

a reader in, 7

procedures mini-lessons, 32

reading aloud in, 27–29

reading and conferring, 33–36

September activities, 26

setting the tone for, 26

sharing, 36–38

teacher book selection of, 26–27

teacher observation of, 22

time allowed for, 7–8

reading

bedside, 43–44

daily opportunities for, 7

encouraging enjoyment of, 26

enthusiasm for, 43

places for, 30–31

real context for, 51

student interest in, 29–30

teacher enthusiasm for, 42

time allowed for, 7, 43

reading behaviors

mini-lessons on, 29–33

modeling, 29–33, 31–33

reading comprehension. See comprehen-

sion

reading instruction

explicit, 6, 10

quality of, ix

successful teacher strategies for, 12

reading speed, 9, 43

reading strategies

application of, 10, 11

explanation of, 10

modeling, by teachers, 10, 11

working definitions for, 12

“Ready Set Read” books, 42

real-world issues, text connections to,

66–67

189

Index

recommendations

for book selection, 45

synthesis in, 164

record keeping, for evaluation, 48–49

reflective thinking

encouraging, 37

modeling, 37

Regis University, 6

relationship building

community building activities, 16–17

respect and, 18

teacher role in, 18–20

through noticing, by teacher, 18, 27

Relatives Came, The (Rylant), 57–58, 72

respect

by parents, for teachers, 6

in share time, 37

showing children how to behave, 18–20

response

modeling, 100

notebooks for, 99

open-ended, 99

options for, 98–101

respectful, 18

sticky notes for, 99

story maps for, 100–101

student activities, 102–3

thoughtful, 94–95

time allowed for, 7

two-column notes for, 100

Venn diagrams for, 100

webs for, 100

responsibility

gradual release of (See gradual release of

responsibility model)

for teaching, 22

retelling, as synthesis, 163–64

rhymes, 26

riddles, 113–14

ripple, synthesis as, 159, 160–63

Robinson, Martha, 82, 92

Roehler, L. R., 8

Rosen, Michael, 34

Rosenshontz, 36

Routman, Regie, xii

Roxaboxen (McLerran), 70, 72

Royal Bee, The (Park and Park), 109–10,

121

rudeness, handling, 18–20

Ryder, Joanne, 80

Rylant, Cynthia, 57–58, 67, 72, 79, 92,

98, 116, 121, 130, 132–33, 140

Salamander Room, The (Mazer), 79, 92

Saunders, Dave, 118

Saunders, Julie, 118

Say, Allen, 144, 159, 171

Say Something (Stoltz), 79–80

scaffolding, 10

schema (prior knowledge), 53–72

activating, 8, 67–68

for authors, 67

book selection and, 41–42, 53

building, 42, 67–68

determining word meanings through,

107–9

differences among readers, 81

drawing conclusions from, 111

evidence of understanding and inde-

pendence, 69–71

first lesson in, 57–58

interpretations based on, 111, 115–16

key points, 71–72

learning to use, 57–58

mental images created from, 80–81

revising, 67–68

as source of answers to questions,

127–30

for text elements, 67

texts for, 72

text-to-self connections, 58–63

text-to-text connections, 63–65

text-to-world connections, 66–67

for types of text, 67

See the Ocean (Condra), 167, 171

Sendak, Maurice, 34

sensory images, 8

series books nonfiction, 155

share time, 36–38

establishing procedures for, 36–37

manners and, 15

signaling beginning of, 36

Reading with Meaning

190

student responsibilities in, 37–38

synthesis in, 164

time allowed for, 7

sharing, with parents, 28

Shaw, Charles Green, 34

Shouse, Jennifer, 151

sight word vocabulary, 51

singing

community building through, 17

in readers’ workshop, 34

as response to reading, 103

role of, 26

as transition to share time, 36

value of, 28, 50

Sleeping Ugly (Yolen), 98

small-group evaluation, 49

small-group work

book clubs, 97–98

informal assessment of, 62–63

locating specific information in nonfic-

tion, 150–51

making text-to-self connections in,

61–63

releasing responsibility to, 61–63

Smoky Night (Bunting), 66, 160–61, 171

Snow White and Rose Red (Cooney), 88

Snowy Day, The (Keats), 59, 72

social issues, text-to world connections,

66–67

social learning, 132

Something Beautiful (Wyeth), 116, 121

songbooks, 1

reading aloud, 27–28

value of, 28

“Song Books” book tub, 1

sounds, mental images from, 84–86

sound-symbol relationships, 51

“Space” (student poem, Emily), 76

spelling instruction, 50

Squire, Ann, 34

standardized tests, 16

Stars and Planets (Levy), 90, 91

“Start off Stories,” 46

Steptoe, John, 164, 171

sticky notes

for book clubs, 97

book selection and, 45

for inferring word meanings, 109, 110

marking information in books with,

37–38

mini-lessons on, 33

for response, 99

teaching use of, 37–38

Stock, Catherine, 103, 107, 121

Stoltz, Mary, 80, 92

story maps

form for, 100–101

for response, 100–101

Story of Jumping Mouse, The (Steptoe),

160, 164–68, 171

Stranger, The (Van Allsburg), 124–25, 140

strategic thinking, by children, viii–ix

Strega Nona (dePaola), 137

Stuart Little (White), 86

student interviews, 3

study groups, for teachers, 22

“Sunday Morning on CBS” (student

poem, Devon), 76

supplies, 3

support, determining need for, 49

synthesis, 8, 158–71

anchor lessons, 160–68

in book recommendations, 164

book selection for, 171

children’s definitions of, 162–63, 168–70

evidence of understanding and inde-

pendence, 168–70

individual approaches to, 151

inferential, 164–67

key points, 171

locating specific information in nonfic-

tion books, 150–51

reader monitoring and, 160–63

retelling and, 163–64

revising while reading, 168

as ripple of meaning, 159, 160–63

tables of contents, 149

Table Where Rich People Sit, The (Baylor),

98, 167, 171

Taileypo, The (Galdone), 138

Taylor, Barbara, 145

191

Index

teachable moments, for teaching children

about respect, 18–20

teachers

assuming responsibility for teaching,

book selection by, 26–27

characteristics of, vii–viii

feedback from, through conferences, 11

making beliefs explicit, 6

modeling enthusiasm for reading, 42

modeling reading strategies, 10

professional development, 22

proper role of, 22–23

respect for, by parents, 6

Tea with Milk (Say), 159, 171

test scores, 16

text elements

schema for, 67

text-to-self connections, 55–56, 119

anchor charts for, 60–61

defined, 57

explicit instruction on, 58–63

informal assessment of, 62–63

meaningful, 59, 61

releasing responsibility for making,

61–63

understanding children’s thinking

about, 60–61

text-to-text connections, 63–65

defined, 64

demonstrating, 63–64

Venn diagrams for, 65

text-to-world connections, 66–67

text types, schema for, 67

themes, determining importance of, 8

think-alouds

about mental images, 77–80

authenticity of, 54, 55

book selection for, 55

demonstrating, 54–57

expectations for, 55

eye-to-eye and knee-to-knee, 56

maintaining focus in, 55

planning, 54–55

precise language in, 55

by teachers, 11

thinking

about self as a reader, 7–8

analysis of, viii

charts, 5

creating a culture and climate for, 17

metacognitive, 9

recording, 56–57

response options, 98–101

“Thinking about Questioning” chart, 126

thinking through the text together, 56

This Same Sky, A Collection of Poems from

Around the World (Nye), 44

Three Billy Goats Gruff, The (Finch), 45

Three Little Pigs, The (Bentley), 34, 36

Time for Kids/Big Picture Edition, 155

Timothy Goes to School (Wells), 117

Titanic Lost and Found, The (Donnelly),

93, 98

tone-setting, 27

Touch the Poem (Adoff ), 34

Tough Boris, 44

Tovani, Cris, 43–44

“Trains” (student poem, Zach), 75

Trumpet of the Swan, The (White), 28,

140

trust

mutual, 20–23

of oneself, 22

Tut’s Mummy Lost and Found (Donnelly),

5, 98, 134

Twenty-Four Robbers (Wood), 1, 34

two-column notes

for inferences, 105–6, 113

for making predictions, 111

for response, 100

“Two Little Monkeys,” 34

Two of Them, The (Aliki), 65, 72

Van Allsburg, Chris, 124, 140

variety

book selection and, 41, 43–44

Venn diagrams

for distinguishing nonfiction from

fiction books, 146

for response, 100

for text-to-text connections, 65

Reading with Meaning

192

visual images

creating from text, 8

Waber, Bernard, 62, 72

Wall, The (Bunting), 54

Ward, Cindy, 21

Way Down South, 36

Weaver, Connie, xii, 2

webs

questioning, 123, 131, 132, 136

responding through, 100

Weekly Reader, 155

Wells, Rosemary, 60, 72, 77, 92

Westcott, Nadine Bernard, 46

What Does the Rain Play? (Carlstrom), 92

When I Am Sleepy (Howard), 92

Where Are You Going, Manyoni? (Stock),

103, 107–9, 121

Where the Wild Things Are (Sendak), 97

White, E. B., 28, 86, 140

Whose Mouse Are You? (Kraus), 20–21

Why Is the Sky Blue? (Grindley), 140

Wild, Wild Sunflower Child (Carlstrom),

Wild, Wild Wolves (Milton), 21, 98

Wildsmith, Brian, 169

William’s Doll (Zolotow), 98

Winter Fox (Stock), 121

Wise Woman and Her Secret, The

(Merriam), 135, 140

Wonder Boxes, 134–35, 143–44, 151

Wonder Cards, 134–35

for locating specific information, 150

wondering

in personal lives, 135

understanding through, 124–25

Wood, Audrey, 34, 80, 92

word identification, 49–52

dramatic responses and, 82

word meanings

determining, using schema, 108–9

dramatic interpretation of, 111–13

inferring, 107–9

inferring with sticky notes, 109, 110

words

explicit instruction about, 50–53

mental images created from, 80–81

signaling learning, 147–48

sound-symbol relationships, 51

text-to-self connections about, 61

work activity time, 103–4

working definitions, of reading strategies,

worksheets, 98

World Book Online, 151

Worth, Valerie, 74

writers’ workshop, 22

writing, about mental images, 84–86

writing table, 2

Wyeth, Sharon Dennis, 116, 121

Yanni Rubbish (Oppenheim), 140

Yolen, Jane, 74, 83, 92, 98, 121

Zimmermann, Susan, 2

Zolotow, Charlotte, 69, 72, 98, 116, 121

Zoo at Night, The (Robinson), 82, 92

Zoo Books, 155

193

Index

Look into Debbie Miller’s first-grade classroom

Strategy Instruction in Action

Stephanie Harvey and Anne Goudvis

Reading comprehension is about much more than answering literal ques-

tions at the end of a passage, story, or chapter, as you’ll see in the videotape

series Strategy Instruction in Action. Created by Stephanie Harvey

and Anne Goudvis, authors of Strategies That Work, these four

videotapes take you into classrooms where Debbie Miller, Leslie

Blauman, and Mary Buerger teach reading comprehension in the

context of reading workshop, modeling their thinking and giving

students ample time to practice so they learn what proficient

readers do to make sense of the text. To enhance their students’

understanding, Debbie, Mary, and Leslie demonstrate several

comprehension strategies, including asking questions, determin-

ing importance, and inferring. They use a variety of fiction and

nonfiction for strategy instruction, including picture books,

magazine articles, and young adult novels. On each tape, the

teachers lead a mini-lesson, confer and share with the kids, and

have a conversation with Stephanie and Anne about the comprehension

instruction in their classrooms.

You’ll find details about these four videotapes, as well as brief video

clips, at our web site: www.stenhouse.com