Skills-Based or Whole Language Reading Instruction? A

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 422 562

CS 013 266

AUTHOR

Wilson, Margaret S.

TITLE

Skills-Based or Whole Language Reading Instruction? A

Comparative Study in the Improvement of the Reading

Comprehension of High School Students.

PUB DATE

1998-08-00

NOTE

72p.; M.A. Thesis, Salem-Teikyo University.

PUB TYPE

Dissertations/Theses

Masters Theses (042) -- Reports -

Research (143)

EDRS PRICE

MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS

Classroom Techniques; Comparative Analysis; Conventional

Instruction; *High School Students; High Schools;

*Instructional Effectiveness; Learning Strategies; *Reading

Comprehension; *Reading Improvement; Reading Research;

*Remedial Reading; *Whole Language Approach

IDENTIFIERS

Metropolitan Achievement Tests; West Virginia

ABSTRACT

Practitioners and researchers argue about how reading should

be taught, about what students should read, and about how best to organize

reading instruction in the classroom. Diverse methods are used to teach

reading. These range from isolated skills-based (intensive phonics/basal

reading programs) to integrated, whole language approaches that stress

language experience, reading, writing, and critical thinking. Since a

sobering percentage of American children have difficulty in learning to read,

an inquiry was made into how best to reverse this trend in a high school

remedial reading classroom. The study's purpose was to compare the teaching

of an integrated, whole language approach to remedial reading using the novel

to a traditional, skills-based approach. The area of interest was reading

comprehension. Subjects were 54 students enrolled in high school remedial

reading classes at North Marion High School in north central West Virginia.

The measuring device was the Metropolitan Achievement Test. Data were

obtained from a control group and an experimental group. Analysis of the data

indicated that an experimental group of high school remedial reading students

who received whole language instruction using the novel and a control group

that received traditional, skills-based instruction scored equally on a

standardized reading comprehension test. Since no significant difference was

shown in the two methods of reading instruction, the conclusion is that

individualization and a balance between whole language and skills-based

instruction is most beneficial to high school remedial reading students.

(Contains 6 tables of data and 65 references.)

(CR)

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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.

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SKILLS-BASED OR WHOLE LANGUAGE READING

INSTRUCTION?

A COMPARATIW STUDY IN

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE READING COMPREHENSION

OF RIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

A Thesis

Presented to

The Faculty of the Master of Arts Degree Program

Salem-Teikyo University

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts in Education

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND

DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS

BEEN GRANTED BY

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

Margaret S. Wilson

August 1998

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Office of Educational Research and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

CENTER (ERIC)

tie(115

document has been reproduced as

received from the person or organization

originating it,

0 Minor changes have been made to improve

reproduction Quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in this docu-

ment do not necessarily represent official

OERI position or policy.

Salem-Teiyko University

Salem, West Virginia

This thesis submitted by Margaret S. Wilson has been

approved meeting the

research requirements for the Master of Arts Degree.

gticlz

Thesis Committee Chair

van der

ssen, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Salem-

ikyo Univ

ity, Salem, West Virginia

Committee Member

Ben Guido, Ed.D., Adjunct Professor of Education, Salem-

Teiyko University, Salem, West Virginia

Gary S icAllister, Professor of Education, Salem-Teiyko

qu_

University, Salem, West Virginia

SKILLS-BASED OR WHOLE LANGUAGE

READING INSTRUCTION?

A COMPARATIVE STUDY IN

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE READING COMPREHENSION

OF HIGH SCHOOL REMEDIAL READING STUDENTS

ABSTRACT

Practitioners and researchers argue about how reading should be taught,

about what students should read, and about how best to organize reading

instruction in the classroom. Diverse methods are used to teach reading. These

range from isolated skills-based (intensive phonics/basal reading programs) to

integrated, whole language approaches that stress language experience, reading,

writing, and critical thinking. Since a sobering percentage of American children

have difficulty learning to read, this inquiry was made into how best to reverse this

trend in a high school remedial reading classroom.

The purpose of this study was to compare the teaching of an integrated,

whole language approach to remedial reading using the novel to a traditional,

skills-based approach. The area of interest was reading comprehension. The

study involved 54 students enrolled in high school remedial reading classes at

North Marion High School in north central West Virginia The measuring device

in the study was the Metropolitan Achievement Test.

The data in this study were obtained from a control group and an

experimental group. The analysis of the data indicated that an experimental group

of high school remedial reading students who received whole language instruction

using the novel and

a control group that received traditional, skills-based

instruction scored equally

on a standardized reading comprehension test. Since

significant difference

was shown in the two methods of reading instruction in this

study, the conclusion is that individualization and

a balance between whole

language and skills-based instruction is

most beneficial to high school remedial

reading students.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Introduction

Purpose of Study

Research Question

Hypothesis

Definition of Terms

Assumptions

Limitations

Importance of the Study

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

The Ability to Read

Skills-Based Instruction

Whole Language

A Balanced Approach to Reading Comprehension

Conclusion

Chapter 3

METHOD

Subjects

Design

Procedure

Instrumentation

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Statement of the Problem

Subjects

Homogeneity

The Hypothesis

Findings and Interpretations

Chapter 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

Conclusions

Recommendations

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

A. Control Group Data

B. Experimental Group Data

C. Gender Graphs

D. Grade Graphs

E. Age Graphs

F. Pretest Scores

G. Post-test Scores

TABLES

1. Gender of Students in Sample

2. Grade Level of Students in Sample

3. Age of Students in Sample

4. Pretest Scores - Reading Comprehension

5. Post-test Scores

- Reading Comprehension

6. Comparison of Pretest and Post-test Scores

Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Introduction

The main goal of education is to teach people to read. Reading is one of

the principal ways of transmitting a culture from one generation to another; failure

to learn to read can keep people from full participation in society (Wolf, 1993).

Reading is a complex skill. Although the exact details are not known, the

process begins when the reader looks at printed material, perceives the

organization of the letters, connects the visual perception and auditory sensation,

selects meaning given in the context, and finally comprehends the passage. In

order for these skills to take place reflexively when a child reaches maturity, the

school builds these skills in the child through study and practice. The main task of

reading instruction is to provide opportunities for working on these skills (Wolf,

1993).

Practitioners and researchers argue about how reading should be taught,

about what students should read, and about how best to organize reading

instniction in the classroom (Fay, 1956). Diverse methods are used to teach

reading. These range from isolated skills-based (intensive phonics/basal reading

programs) to integrated, whole language approaches that stress language

experience, reading, writing, and critical thinking. Since a sobering percentage of

American children have difficulty learning to read, this inquiry was made into how

best to reverse this trend in a high school remedial reading classroom (Kolstad &

Bardwell, 1997).

Purpose of Study

The purpose of this study was to compare two groups of students in a high

school remedial reading classroom. One group was instructed using the traditional

skills-based method and the other using an integrated whole language approach.

Standardized tests were administered prior to and immediately following the study

to determine if significant differences existed in the reading comprehension of the

two groups.

Research Question

The study was guided by the research question: Do high school remedial

reading students who receive whole language instruction using the novel score

higher on standardized reading comprehension tests than students instructed with a

traditional skills-based method?

Hypothesis

Ho: Students in a high school remedial reading classroom who receive

whole language instruction using the novel and students who receive traditional

skills-based method of instniction will

score equally on a standardized reading

comprehension test.

Students in a high school remedial reading classroom

who receive

whole language instruction using the novel will

score higher on a standardized

reading comprehension test than students who receive traditional

skills-based

method of instruction.

Balanced approach

- Using the balanced approach to teach reading, teachers blend

basic skills instruction with exposure to rich literature and writing

(Manzo, 1997).

Phonics is taught in systemic fashion, within the context of real stories

(Diegmueller, 1996).

Distlindinungiam

- The basal reading program is a complete package of

teaching materials, including student reader, teacher's manual, student workbook,

practice sheets, word cards, filmstrips, audio cassette tapes, and tests (Demos,

1987).

ft,citzin - Behaviorism is a theory or doctrine that studies human behavior

through analysis of objectively observable behavioral events, in contrast with

subjective mental states (Flexner, 1987).

Cognitive psychology

- Cognitive psychology is a branch studying the mental

processes involved in perception, learning, memory, and reasoning (Flexner,

1 1

1987).

Functionally illiterate

- A person who is functionally illiterate has some basic

education but still falls short of a minimum standard of literacy

or whose reading

and writing skills are inadequate for everyday needs (Flexner, 1987).

Intrinsic phonics - Intrinsic phonics is phonics that is taught more gradually, in the

context of meaningful reading (Chall, 1983).

Phoneme - In linguistics study, a phoneme is the smallest unit of speech that

distinguishes one word element from another in the English language (Esher,

1997).

Phonics

- Phonics is instruction in the relationship between letters and speech

sounds. The purpose of phonics is to teach students the alphabetic principle,

enabling them to see the relationship between letters and sounds and letters and

meanings, thus assisting them in the identification of known words and to

independently figure out unfamiliar words (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, &

Wilkinson, 1985).

Phonological awareness

- Phonological awareness is defmed as the ability to hear

and manipulate sound units in the language, such as syllables, the major parts of

syllables, and phonemes (Adams & Bruck, 1995).

Prior knowledge - Prior knowledge has to do with information gained in other

times and other places, knowledge that students potentially can bring with them to

their reading (Gilles, Bixby, Crowley, Crenshaw, Henrichs, Reynolds, & Pyle,

1988).

Reading

- Reading is the process of constructing meaning from written

text.

Reading is so complex that it requires

the coordination of a number of interrelated

skills (Anderson, et al., 1985).

Reading comprehensigi

- The researcher's definition of reading comprehension is

"the process of constructing meaning through

the dynamic interaction

among the

reader's existing knowledge, the information

suggested by the written language,

and the context of the reading situation" (Wixson

& Peters, 1984, p. 4).

Semantics

- Semantics is the study of meaningful and linguistic development by

examining changes in meaning and form (Flexner, 1987).

Skills-based instruction

- The traditional theory of learning to read is that children

learn a complex skill like reading by first making

sense of the smallest components

of the language (letters) and then progressing

to larger components (sounds,

words, and sentences). Children learn to read by decoding the

language

(Diegmueller, 1996).

Whokimmage Reading instruction that

can be called "whole language" teaches

children to create meaning from a transaction/interaction of information and the

reader's existing knowledge. Whole language involves

an interchange among

reader, text, environment, and the reading

process (Gutknecht, 1989). Whole

language means that all of language (reading, writing, listening, and speaking) in

an integrated form must be presented to students if they are to learn to read and

write (Gilles, et al., 1988).

Assumptions

1. The sample in this study

was adequate in size.

2. The sample in this study was typical of high school

remedial reading students.

3. The students in the whole language

group and the direct skills instniction group

were of equal intelligence.

4. The teaching methods used with the two

groups were significantly different.

5. The time frame of this study was adequate.

6. All of the students in this study

were present during the duration of this study.

7. The Metropolitan Achievement Test used in this study is valid.

8. The Metropolitan Achievement Test provides valid and adequate information

the evaluation of students' reading comprehension.

Limitations

1. This study was geographically limited to a rural high school community in

north central West Virginia.

2. The students in this study were largely from middle and lower socio-economic

families. The majority of the students were Caucasian.

3. The students in the classes involved in this study

were all below their grade

level in reading comprehension.

4. The students in this study

were in grades nine through twelve and

were

recommended for remedial reading instruction.

They were randomly placed in

these classes by a computer scheduling

process.

5. Some of the students in this study

received language instruction from other

language arts instructors. This additional

instruction may have influenced results.

6. One teacher instructed both the whole language

group and the traditional

instruction group.

7. The Metropolitan Achievement Test

was the sole testing device used for

comparison in this study.

8. Reading comprehension

was the only component of reading instruction that

was measured by this study.

Importance of' the Study

The traditional method of reading instruction began with reading lessons

that focused on phonics, emphasized

a tightly controlled vocabulary, and

continued with short "basal" (basic) reading

passages, followed by "skill-and drill"

exercises, each with only one correct answer (Diegmueller, 1996).

The introduction of whole language into the reading classroom represented

a different philosophy about the teaching and learning of language in the

classroom. Whole language became an innovation that stressed that children

use

language in ways that relate to their own lives and cultures and that involve all the

communication skills

- reading, writing, listening, speaking (Diegmueller, 1996).

Much research has been done on these two powerful schools of thought.

Many school systems insist that the curriculum reflect a time-honored reliance

upon phonics and basal readers. Conversely, the whole language approach is

embraced by many educators. For a time the whole language approach

was SO

dominant, that when reading test scores remained stagnant, or

even declined, a

powerful pro-phonics backlash occurred. Many experts now favor a balance

between the two approaches, blending the best of both whole language and

traditional reading instruction (Diegmueller, 1996).

Since research is limited as to the preferred method of remediating high

school readers, this study is a comparison between the traditional, direct, skills-

based method of teaching reading and whole language instruction, using high

interest/low level novels. If it is determined that one method brings better results

in the reading comprehension of high school remedial reading students, a

recommendation to retain and expand that method would be warranted.

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to

compare the teaching of an integrated

approach to remedial reading using the novel

to a more traditional, skills-based

approach to remedial reading. The review of the

literature includes the following

topics: the ability to read, skills-based instruction, whole

language, and a balanced

approach to reading comprehension.

The Abiliti to Read

In earlier days, the vast majority of people could neither read

nor write.

They received information by word of mouth. Stories about their families

or their

leaders were passed down from generation to generation of listeners. Only

the

most important records were kept in writing, and anyone who could read and write

was a member of a special ruling class. Today, the ability to read is necessary for

nearly everyone. Adults who cannot read or who

are functionally illiterate find it

difficult to get a job, find housing, buy food, or receive medical

care. Reading is

no longer a special skill; it is a basic requirement (Chall, Popp, & Hirshberg,

1993).

Primitive man made pictures, using pointed flintflake

on stone, bone, horn,

and every other conceivable material, to communicate ideas, and there is evidence

that the pictures were quite similar throughout the world. Later, the symbols came

to represent ideas, rather that just single words. In the course of time man has

developed many types of written languages and found that language consists of

sounds that are represented by written characters. The ability to understand these

characters became increasingly important. By the beginning of the 19th century,

the ability to read was so highly valued that increasing numbers of children

attended school (Wolf, 1993).

Thus, reading instruction became the major job of the school. School

success or failure can often be traced to the child's success or failure at learning to

read. It is estimated that 75 percent of what a student learns in high school is

learned through reading (Fay, 1956). All school subjects depend heavily on

reading. When a school improves its reading program, improvement can be seen

in the various subjects being aught in that school. Many high school students

become dropouts because they are unable to read on a level in keeping with the

demands of the subjects in which they are enrolled (Aaron, 1961).

Reading is a basic life skill and becomes the basis for a child's success in

school. Without the ability to read well, opportunities for personal fulfillment and

job success will inevitably be lost. Society and individuals place much importance

on reading. In the classrooms across the country, reading

is an essential tool for

success. Not being able to read textbooks, do research in the library, or even

read

the teacher's notes on the blackboard directly affects

the quality and quantity of

child's learning (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, &

Wilkinson, 1985).

Adult readers and even high school teachers

often forget how difficult it

might have been for

some children to learn to read and take for granted the

many

times reading ability is used. Reading touches all

aspects of life and, to a large

extent, influences one's lifestyle, often being the determining factor

in one's

employment opportunities. Thus, literacy issues have

become the concern, not

only of schools, but of society and legislators alike. Adult

literacy and

remediation classes aid people in becoming

more self-sufficient, thus easing both

human and political issues such

as unemployment and welfare costs.

Psychologists know that reading can help relieve depression and

boredom (Leu &

Kinzer, 1987).

Reading is a complex process, involving

an intermingling of at least the

following elements: people (readers and writers), language, and printed

matter. In

simplest terms reading is defined as "getting information from the printed page"

"communication between an author and a reader" (Smith & Johnson, 1980, p.201).

A few decades ago, Leonard Bloomfield (1942), a noted American linguist,

referred to reading as the greatest intellectual feat of anyone's lifetime

Reading is important for society as well as for the individual. While

country receives a good return on its investment in education at all levels, nursery

school through college, research shows that the returns are highest from the early

years of schooling when children are first learning to read

(Psacharopoulos, 1981).

The Commission on Excellence (1983) warned of

the risk for America from

shortcomings in secondary education. The early

years set the stage for later

learning. Without the ability to read well, excellence

in high school and beyond is

unattainable (Chall, 1983).

As knowledge of the reading process has evolved,

so have the definitions

of reading become more complex. Although "getting

meaning from print" is one

way to define reading, such simplified definitions do not adequately identify the

complexity of the process, nor do they reflect the interaction of factors

which enter

into the reading process. Rudolf Flesch (1981) relates reading

to a set of

mechanical skills. In his view, "Learning to read is like learning

to drive a car...the

child learns the mechanics of reading; and, when he is through, he

can read" (p.3).

Dechant (1982) feels that reading is more complex. He states that reading

cannot

occur unless the pupil can identify and recognize the printed symbol, and be able

to give it a name. Meaning is absolutely essential in reading. Dechant speculates

that too much emphasis in reading instniction has been placed on word

identification and not enough on comprehension. Rumelhart (1986)

sees even

more intricacies in the reading process. He states that:

Reading is the process of understanding written language. It begins with a

flutter of patterns on the retina and ends when successful with a definite

idea about the author's intended message,...a skilled reader must be able to

make use of sensory, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic information to

accomplish his task. These various sources of information interact in many

2 0

complex ways during the

process of reading (p.722).

Another definition by Leu and Kinzer (1987)

states that "Reading is a

developmental, interactive, and global

process involving learned skills. The

process specifically incorporates an individual's linguistic knowledge

and can be

both positively and negatively influenced by

nonlinguistic internal and external

variables or factors" (p.9).

Defmitions of reading are personal, based

on one's view of how one reads

or on the method by which one has been taught to read. Any definition of reading

is only a guide and must change

as the knowledge of the reading process grows.

Reading is a complex skill requiring the coordination of

a number of interrelated

sources of information. Becoming a skilled reader is a matter of continuous

practice, development, and refinement. Learning to read ought

to be a delightful,

successful experience for children. Some students, however, find learning

to read

a drudgery, a difficult and frustrating task (Anderson, et al., 1985).

Reading serves many purposes. It is a means of gathering information, it

can provide relaxation and entertainment, as well as being a means to pleasure

through the learning of new ideas. Reading can be silent

or, on occasion, oral

(Stauffer, 1980). Being able to read does not make a person smart

or productive,

but being able to read makes it possible for a person to function more intelligently

and effectively within modern society. This is the perspective which teachers of

reading most need to develop (Baird, 1987). The final goal for teaching reading

must be to produce readers, not readers just

on grade level, but lovers of reading

and devourers of reading (Carbone, 1987).

One of the most agreed

upon conclusions of modem research about reading

deals with the complexity of the reading

process. Anderson et al. (1985) describes

this complexity as follows:

Based on what we now know, it is incorrect

to suppose that there is a

simple or single step which, if taken correctly, will immediately

allow a

child to read. Becoming a skilled reader is

a journey that involves many

steps. Similarly, it is unrealistic to anticipate that

some one critical feature

of instruction will be discovered which, if in place, will

assure rapid

progress in reading. Quality instruction involves many elements.

Strengthening any one element yields small gains. For large gains,

many

elements must be in place (p.4).

Further, the Commission on Reading states in its report, Becoming

a Nation

of Readers, "while there is more consensus about reading than in the

past, there

are still important issues about which reasonable people disagree" (Anderson, et

al., 1985, p.4). Practitioners and researchers still

argue about how reading should

be taught, about what students should read, and about how best to organize reading

instruction in classrooms. Specialists in the reading field make fervent claims for

their approaches to a particular aspect of reading, whether it be intensive phonics,

basal reader approach, reading/writing connection, whole language, or high-level

thinking skills as "the answer" for teachers of reading. The lack of a body of

agreed-upon knowledge in the field of reading means not only that the arguments

will last a long time, but that various kinds of exaggerated claims will continue to

be made. This lack of a foundation of knowledge has much

to do with the swings

and fads for which the reading field is known (Winograd &

Greenlee, 1986).

Recent revision of theories and instructional methods have been made

because of the tremendous amount of research that has been done in the

area of

reading in the 1970's, 1980's, and 1990's. Researchers speculate that changes in

theories and the competitive nature of reading instruction

may produce seemingly

able readers who only engage in reading for external rewards, such

as grades, and

who never develop a love of reading. Children who are placed in reading

groups

that are compared to each other come to view reading as a competitive activity.

School systems that allow reading goals to be determined by test

scores, textbook

companies, outside educators, and the public come to view reading as a

competition (Van Prooyen & Clouse, 1994). Researchers also argue that teachers

have become "deskilled" in the sense that they no longer exercise their

professional judgment in deciding what to teach, how to teach, and when it should

be taught (Shannon, 1983, 1984; Shulman, 1983; Woodward, 1986). Shannon

(1983) believes that teachers exercise instructional control only to the extent that

their textbooks will allow. Some of the blame can be put on the use of commercial

reading materials (i.e. basal readers and workbooks), while other blame can be

placed upon the politics of school systems, classroom management issues, and

accountability. Teachers differ widely in their reading instruction goals (Calfee &

Drum, 1979). Calfee and Drum (1979) speculate that when a teacher is ineffective

2 3

in helping students achieve reading goals, that perhaps changing

that teacher's

goals would be an essential step in changing practices. They

suggest more intense

teacher preservice and inservice in order to provide

more coherent reading

instruction. Some teachers may be spending too much time guiding

children

through materials by assigning them activities and worksheets

and too little time

engaged in the kind of teaching that will help children appreciate

what they are

reading and develop into independent readers (Winograd & Greenlee,

1986).

Freedom for teachers to make curriculum judgments is essential

to the

development of a quality reading

program. Classroom teachers know more about

their individual students than do the authors and publishers of reading

programs.

It is critical that teachers use their knowledge in selecting and adapting materials

and lessons that suit the needs, strengths, and interests of their students. Teachers

must be enthusiastic in order to create quality reading program. They must share

their love of reading with children (Van Prooyen & Clouse, 1994).

lf, indeed, teachers are expected to teach children to read and to help them

improve, refine, and apply their reading abilities, then the teacher and the school

district must decide on a sensible approach to the teaching of reading. If, indeed,

one of the major objectives of the school is to help each student become an

independent reader, then the classroom organization used must help students learn

and gain proficiency in applying reading skills to the reading of all types of

material (Van Prooyen & Clouse, 1994).

2 9

Skills-Based Instruction

The traditional theory of learning

to read, which became part of the

instructional process with the beginning of

mass schooling in the 19th century, is

that children learn a complex skill like reading by first

making sense of the

smallest components of the language (letters) and then

progressing to larger

components (sounds, words, and sentences). When reading instruction

occurs

through skills-based or direct instruction, children learn

to read by learning to

decode the language, and understanding follows after they break the

code and

master the components. Traditional American education begins, therefore, with

reading lessons that focus on phonics (sounding out first letters, then combinations

of letters), tightly controlled vocabulary, and short "basal" (or basic) reading

passages, followed by numerous skills exercises, each with only one correct

answer (Diegmueller, 1996).

Traditional reading instruction involves the teaching of specific, isolated,

and often abstract skills. Teachers check off one skill after another until all

are

taught and learned, and then, at least from a basic skills perspective, the child is

competent reader. Reading instructional materials and programs are developed

based upon detailed, highly sequential, step-by-step manuals of directions for

teachers (Gutknecht, 1989).

In linguistics study, the smallest unit of speech that distinguishes one word

element from another in the English language is called a phoneme. Every

2 5

language consists of a specific group of phonemes. English is made up of 45

distinct sounds, 25 of which are consonant sounds and 19 which are vowel sounds.

As with all alphabetic languages, the emphasis of teaching reading using phonics

has been on correlating the written print to the phonetic sounds used in the spoken

language. For years, this method of teaching reading and writing did not vary

much. Children are taught, going from the simple to the complex: first, the

alphabet, then simple short syllables and then words. Once their decoding skills

have developed to a reasonable level, children are introduced to short "basal"

reading passages, stories, and poems. Children are expected to use their phonetic

decoding skills whenever they encounter a new word. Practice is the most

important component in making the decoding process automatic and almost

unconscious (Esher, 1997).

Through the 1980's and early 1990's, some prominent reading researchers

have argued for the intense and systematic teaching of phonics (Chall, 1983;

Adams, 1990; Stahl, 1992). According to Constance Weaver (1994), educators

agree that children learning to read written English texts must

learn that there is a

relationship between letter patterns and sound patterns in English; they also agree

that children need to develop the ability to relate letter patterns to sound patterns.

Recently, though, those staunch advocates of phonics argue that phonics is all that

children need in order to learn to read. The sources of phonics-first propaganda

back their arguments with references to respected researchers, who commonly

2 6

proclaim to demonstate the superiority of teaching

phonics intensively and

systematically. However,

even these researchers do not advocate the phonics-only

method as a means of teaching children

to read (Adams, 1990).

The major body of comparative research arguing

for the teaching of intense

phonics was originally that summarized by Jeanne

Chall in 1967 and updated in

1983. Chall sununarizes her findings by saying that judging

from the studies

comparing systematic phonics with intrinsic phonics (phonics

taught more

gradually, in the context of meaningful reading) it

can be concluded that

systematic phonics at the very beginning tends to produce generally

better reading

and spelling achievement than intrinsic phonics, at least through grade

three

(Chall, 1983). In this context, "achievement"

means scores on standardized tests,

that, for reading, often contain subtests of phonics knowledge. This body of

research says nothing about how children read and comprehend normal

texts

(Carbo, 1988).

The last decade has seen considerable research on phonological

awareness.

Phonological awareness is defined as the ability to hear and manipulate sound

units in the language, such as syllables, the major parts of syllables, and

phonemes. Some of this research has demonstrated that there is a strong

correlation between phonemic awareness and reading achievement, as measured

by scores on standardized tests (Adams & Bruck, 1995; Beck & Juel, 1995;

Foorman, 1995). Such correlation research has led to the argument that children

2 7

should be explicitly taught phonemic

awareness, not merely to help them sound

out words, but to recognize words

on sight, automatically (Stanovich, 1991, 1992).

Although phonic methods

were more prevalent before World War I, the

first sight, whole-word,

or "look and say" methods began in the 19th century.

Believing that words are recognized

as wholes and that a word's meaning is more

important that its pronunciation, William

Holmes' "McGuffey Reader"

was

developed and used until the first quarter of the 20th

century. This basal reader

approach to teaching reading first began to develop with the

introduction of

McGuffey readers in the 1830's. McGuffey readers became the

mainstay in

American education. For almost

a century they were the main reading materials

for over 80 percent of America's school children (Hart, 1950).

One of the lasting

contributions of the McGuffey was its careful graduation of material in

a series

that provided one reader for each grade of the elementary school (Gage, 1963).

From 1930 to 1960, McGuffey readers became regarded

as out-of-date,

and newer readers began to replace them. In the 1960's and 1970's,

a new style in

the basal reading series emerged. Each dimension of the reading series, from story

setting to characters to themes to subject matter, underwent dramatic change

(Steddon & Stever, 1979).

The basal reader of today represents a publisher's attempt to develop a

preplanned, sequentially organized group of materials and methods for teaching

developmental reading. Basal readers have traditionally followed the pattern of

2 8

McGuffey readers, which featured controlled vocabulary,

gradually increasing

difficulty, and content aimed at being interesting

to the majority of children

(Peryon, 1981).

Today the basal reader approach is the favored approach for

teaching

reading in the majority of elementary classrooms (Chall, 1983).

George and

Evelyn Spache (1977) reported that, in

a survey of 1300 teachers, 95 to 98 percent

used the basal reader approach to teach reading. The chief appeals

of the basal

reader are that it is sequential and teachers with limited backgrounds in the

teaching of reading can use it easily and successfully for beginning instruction

(Baird, 1987). Shannon (1983) suggests that teachers feel administrative

pressure

to use the basal reader and its accompanying teacher's manual as a major

component of their reading program. Parents and the community also place

pressure on teachers and the school to provide formal textbooks for their children

to learn to read.

The basal reader approach involves utilization of a carefully organized

series of books. Most series try to address all phases of the reading program,

including word recognition, vocabulary development, comprehension, oral and

silent reading, and reading for information and recreation. The teachers' manuals

give an assortment of suggestions and detailed plans for each story and include a

sequence of skills practices (Dowhover, 1989). The components of basal

programs are: student reader, teacher's manual, student workbook, practice sheets,

2 9

word cards, filmstrips, audio cassette tapes, and tests. The strengths include

high

structure, many approaches, scope, sequence, non-realistic

stories, and the

abundance of pre-prepared worksheets and skills-practices (Demos, 1987).

Stories found in basal readers have changed over the years as society's

image of itself has changed. Content has passed through religious,

moral,

materialistic, and, more recently, multicultural phases. Basal reader

publishers are

using more good literature and even hiring famous children's authors to

write

original stories for early reading texts. They realize that sexism, ageism,

work

mode bias, racism and stereotypic ideal family situations have no

place in

children's reading material. If readers are to understand text, basals must

understandable; they must be realistic (Cassidy, 1987).

Whole Language

After World War II, the heavy emphasis on skills-based reading

instruction

began to give way to a broadened concept of language learning (Kolstad

Bardwell, 1997). Recognizing the limitations of basic skills instruction and the

quality of reading materials that focused on a skills acquisition model

of the

reading process, school systems across the nation implemented a shift

in both

instruction and materials to what is known as a "literature-based, whole

language

approach" (Gutknecht, 1989).

The term "whole language" was coined by Dr. Kenneth Goodman of the

3 0

University of Arizona in the early 1980's. Whole

language developed into much

more than just a reading program. It is an educational philosophy

in its own right.

Goodman believed that learning written

language occurs naturally, in the

same

way spoken language is acquired. He thought children learn

to read primarily by

figuring out the meaning of words from analyzing

the context in which they

occur

(Esher, 1997). Although several

states and school districts had practiced whole

language, at least in part, the educational philosophy

and pedagogy first gained

widespread acceptance in California, where the

state education department

incorporated it into its English-language

arts framework in 1987 (Diegmuller,

1996). In Canada, other leaders emerged during

approximately this same time

period, among them Judith Newman and David Doake.

In New Zealand and

Australia, where whole language is known

as "natural" learning, the best-known

researchers are Don Holdaway and Brian Cambourne (Weaver,

1995). Whole

language has been described by Goodman, Bird, and Goodman

(1991) as:

nothing short of a grass-roots revolution in education. It brings together

the

scientific study of learning, of language, of teaching, and of curriculum

with the positive, people-centered, historical traditions that sensitive,

caring

teachers have always upheld. A whole language classroom is

a democratic

community of learners, and its curriculum is embedded in the culture and

social experience of the larger community (p.1).

Whole language has received a great deal of attention from the professional

community as an alternative to the traditional basal reading

program (Kolstad &

Budwell, 1997).

In part, the shift from skills-based reading instruction

to whole language

was based on investigations into the reading process that indicated that readers

create meaning from a transaction/interaction of infonnation and the

reader's

existing knowledge. From this perspective, reading is

an interchange among the

reader, the text, the environment, and the reading

process. This "receptive

language" aspect requires the reader to decode the

message of the text, encoded by

the author. The reader decodes by bringing his/her experiential

and conceptual

background of thoughts and ideas to the search for meaning in the

text (Gutknecht,

1989).

Reading instruction that can be called "whole language" must be built

the understanding of the nature and relationship of author, text, reader, and

language. Basic skills reading approaches

pay less attention to author and reader,

focusing almost entirely on the text and the phonemic codes of the language. A

typical description of enthusiasm for whole language

comes from Routman (1988),

who says that reading should be taught as an active

process, that students should

be actively involved with print. The elements of whole language should be used

so that students acquire an appreciation and love for reading.

In defending the trend toward whole language, researchers from the Center

for the Study of Reading reported that although current basal stories use real

children's literature, many stories seem unbelievable next to the children's own

lives and certainly dull in comparison to television. Basal stories focus on what

3 2

characters say and do and not

on what they are thinking and feeling, thereby

depriving children of the opportunity

to develop critical thinking strategies

(Marshall, 1983). Whole language

attempts to present students with text that is

understandable, with characters and situations within

the realm of reality

(Gutknecht, 1989).

Whole language declares that reading should

not be taught as a fragmented

series of subskills, because real language does

not exist in isolated bits and pieces.

Reading should be presented to the student

as an integrated unit composed of

listening, speaking, and writing,

as well as actual reading experience (which

should include use of the language experience approach, the

directed reading

approach, and the teacher reading to the students) (Gutknecht, 1989).

Whole

language is pragmatic in its approach, in that it is language in

use, having to do

with the reader's prior knowledge and with how language has meaning within

the

context in which it is read. Whole language involves semantics, that is the

writer's/reader's sense of meaning, that is influenced by background and culture

(Gilles, Bixby, Crowley, Crenshaw, Henrichs, Reynolds, & Pyle, 1988).

Tierney and Pearson (1985) suggested several ways to help teachers

overcome the constraints of the typical reading lesson and the "skill and drill"

approach. Teachers must fmd out the children's prior knowledge before reading

the story, encourage rereading, and give students the opportunity go evaluate their

own ideas. In addition, students must be given the opportunity to consider the

3 3

viewpoints of others and to recognize the influence their

own past experiences and

their own reasons for reading have on their understanding of the

text. Further,

teachers should spend time helping students develop strategies for reading,

perhaps

"mapping" the reading task prior to actual reading,

encourage students to consider

the author's message to them, develop links between what students read and what

they write, and involve students in discussion and cooperative learning, regarding

their reading assignments.

According to Constance Weaver (1995), some of the key characteristics of

whole language education are the following:

1. Acceptance of learners. All learners are accepted, regardless of their

cultural or socio-economic background or other characteristics or labels. But

"acceptance of learners" also means that whole language teachers develop

classroom environment and cuiriculum with the students, engaging them in

learning about things that interest them.

2. Flexibility within structure. Instead of having children do one worksheet

after another, whole language teachers organize the day into larger blocks of time,

so that students engage in meaningful pursuits. They study a theme or topic across

several curriculum areas. Students have many choices as to what they will do and

learn; however, the teacher guides, supports, and structures the students' learning

as needed.

3. Supportive classroom community. Teachers have the opportunity to

3 4

help children interact with each other, solving interpersonal

conflicts and

problems, supporting one another in learning, and

taking much responsibility for

their own behavior and learning.

4. Expectations for success

as they engage in "real" reading, writing, and

learning. Students are given the support they need to read and

write whole texts

from the very beginning. Whole language teachers have discovered that

almost all

students can learn to read and write whole texts.

5. Skills taught in context. Instead of being taught in isolation, skills

are

taught in mini-lessons and conferences, within the context of students' reading,

writing, and learning. Phonics is taught mainly through writing the sounds they

hear in the words read and reread with the teacher. Spelling and

grammar are

mainly taught while children are revising and editing their writing. In short, skills

are taught while students are engaged in real-life tasks.

6. Teacher support for learning and collaboration. Whole language

teachers collaborate with children in carrying out research projects and, in the

process, they model and explain how to do things that the children cannot yet do

alone. By collaborating on projects, children provide similar support for one

another.

7. Contextual assessment that emphasizes individuals' growth, as well as

their accomplishments. Assessment takes on a new meaning within whole

language theory. Standardized tests are not emphasized. Assessment is based

primarily upon what children are doing from day to day as they read, write,

research, and express their learning in various ways. Whole language teachers

often involve children in assessing their own work and progress and in setting

future goals for learning. Parents and peers may also be involved in assessment.

Individual growth and strengths are emphasized, within agreed-upon goals and

predetermined criteria.

Whole language represents a different philosophy about teaching, learning,

and the role of language in the classroom. It stresses that children should use

language in ways that relate to their own lives and cultures. In the whole language

classroom, the final product, the "answer," is not as important as the process

(Diegmueller, 1996). Reuling instruction must be implemented in the context of

the other language/communication processes--speaking, listening, and writing.

The content of materials must be real to the children. Finally, whole language

experts say that reading instruction has not been all wrong in the past; it has just

been starting in the wrong place. Whole language advocates proclaim that by

focusing more on the reader's knowledge and the orderly combination of related

parts of the language system, whole language instruction begins in the mind of the

reader, not with the letters on the page (Gutknecht, 1989).

A Balanced Approach to Reading Comprehension

Research in reading comprehension has received more attention in the past

3 6

15 years than in the previous six decades. Roger Glaser

suggests in Becoming a

Nation of Readers that the research

now available on the reading process can help

to identify what teaching practices

are most effective in the teaching of reading

comprehension (Anderson, et al., 1985). Early research

in reading comprehension

(1915 to 1970) seemed to move at

a snail's pace, perhaps reflecting the continuing

influence of the behavioral tradition that dominated psychology

during that time.

Behaviorism emphasized the study of observable behavior

or events. Since the

reading process is primarily a mental

process, much of the process is not

observable and, therefore, outside the scope of psychological testing. Research

reading began to assume a "product orientation," with attention given

to accuracy

in oral reading and performance on standardized tests of reading skills The results

of such testing was a undue emphasis on phonics, since the testing of the

knowledge of letter sounds, blending skills, auditory perception and discrimination

is fairly simple. The comprehension process was treated as

a "by-product," since

many assumed that comprehension automatically followed, once students has

"broken the code," and could listen to what they themselves said (Anthony,

Pearson, & Raphael, 1989).

Fortunately for those concerned with reading comprehension, the field of

psychology that had banned reading comprehension as a field of study reinstated

the study, this time in the area of cognitive psychology. Reading, considered to be

one form of problem solving, began to be studied by psychologists, linguists, and

anthropologists, in addition to reading educators. Several

new models of reading

instruction evolved during this period (Pearson, 1986). Gough (1972)

and his

colleagues proposed bottom-up models, emphasizing the flow of information

from

text, to visual memory, to auditory memory, to comprehension. Smith (1971) and

Goodman (1976), on the other hand, developed top-down models that emphasized

the internalization of meaning from reading. Other researchers such

as Rumelhart

(1977) and Stanovich (1980) constructed interactive models which, depending

upon the text, context, and reader, allow the flow of information to switch from

bottom-up to top-down.

The reading community defines reading comprehension

as "the process of

constructing meaning through the dynamic interaction among the reader's existing

knowledge, the information suggested by the written language, and the context of

the reading situation" (Wixson & Peters, 1984, p.4). It is representative of the

current trend away from decoding-only emphasis. Reading comprehension

involves interpreting text and constructing meaning in light of the reader's

background knowledge, his/her goals, purpose, and expectations (Anthony, et al.,

1989).

With the knowledge that a demonstration of competence in a collection of

reading skills does not equal reading, teachers understand that instructional

emphasis in reading must move from phonics-only, skill-and-drill, easy-to-teach,

easy-to-test reading instruction to application of knowledge. This means that

3 8

reading instruction moves from surface level word recognition skills and low level

literal comprehension skills to the interpretive and applied levels of comprehension

which enable the reader to meet the real goal of reading--understanding the

message of the author (Gutknecht, 1989).

The comprehension of what one reads is communication process, involving

the processes of speaking, listening, and writing. The purpose of this

communication is to send and receive a message from the speaker (the writer) to

the listener (the reader). Any reading instruction that stops short of this purpose, is

changed, because it is short-changing the reader. Teachers begin comprehension

instniction early, and it is built on what children already know. All children,

regardless of background, have some kind of prior knowledge. Using a top-down

or transactive/interactive approach, teachers should use meaningful, predictable

stories and ask literal and interpretive level questions, involving children in

comprehension strategies such as stating main idea, grouping and classifying

information, sequencing, and predicting outcomes (Gutknecht, 1989).

Learning to read is a critical basic skill, yet its accomplishment among

American children is by no means automatic or universal (Kolstad & Bardwell,

1997). The most striking fmding from the 1994 National Assessment of

Educational Progress (NAEP) was that the average reading proficiency of twelfth-

grade students declined significantly from 1992 to 1994.

No consensus exists on just how reading is learned. Most students seem to

3 9

master phonics and other basal reader skills perfectly in the lower grades. But a

common occurrence in high school classrooms is to have students who can

"decode" a reading passage flawlessly, have perfect pronunciation, but do not

comprehend what they read. Because this situation is so very commonwith

students who master their phonics perfectly, but cannot adequately comprehend

what they so easily pronounceeducators look to engage students in what they are

learning so that reading becomes more meaningful (Cirone, 1997).

As previously stated, the term "whole language" is often used to cover a

process designed to immerse students in literature and related writing activities.

Whole language is effective with most children, but some respond better to other

methods. Teachers cannot be limited to only one method of teaching reading

(Kolstad & Bardwell, 1997). As Church (1994) stated, "I have faced the

uncomfortable reality that there really are no certainties in teaching - no right way.

Some students learn best from part to whole, others learn better using the holistic

method (whole to part)" (p.362).

Using whole language to the exclusion of phonics and basic reading skills

was never the intention of those who developed the

theory of whole language. It

used literature that was of interest to young people in order to engage them in the

process more rapidly, and to enrich reading programs

that frequently offered

unending "drill-and-kill" skills that were far removed from the purpose of getting

meaning from what was read. But it never meant to replace phonics, and those

4 0

few who used it to extreme were as misguided as those who would

not supplement

the basal readers with literature. Conversely, reading and understanding

great

literature are also of little use if one cannot express oneself with good

pronunciation and clear spelling. Students must be taught both phonics and

comprehension skills (Cirone, 1997). Speigel (1992) stated that bridges

can and

must be built between whole language and more traditional literacy instruction to

enable teachers to blend the best of both in order to help

every child reach his or

her full literacy potential. She says that teachers will draw what works from

variety of approaches.

In California, where whole language first gained widespread acceptance

into language arts instruction, the state board of education has been force to

rethink its approach to reading instruction. Placing much of the blame for dismal

standardized test scores on the almost exclusive teaching of whole language, the

state board last year rejected all materials thatit felt lacked sufficient emphasis on

basic reading skills. Yvonne W. Larson, the chairperson of the board, said in an

interview, "What we are looking for is a balanced approach...We want voracious

readers, but our feeling is they've got to have the basic skills first." California

education leaders pledged that they would work toward promoting a balanced

approach by having teachers blend basic skills instruction with exposure to rich

literature and writing (Manzo, 1997).

Astute teachers who favor a balanced approach to whole language are

aware that, given the same text, readers do not necessarily construct the same

meaning. This individuality is recognized, respected, and utilized in the literacy

program. With this understanding, teachers are careful not to label readers as low,

average, high. They realize that all students are more proficient when reading

something of interest than when they are involved in artificial reading material that

reaps no benefits or joy. Students realize this fact, also. The teacher's task then

becomes, not to stamp out readers' miscues, but rather to help students to establish

and control their reading strategies. When readers gain control of the

process,

their miscues, their comprehension, and their critical thinking get better (Gilles, et

al., 1988).

Conclusion

While it is interesting to debate the pros and cons of various approaches to

the teaching of reading, it is meaningless and counterproductive to do so. Any

system that eliminates literature and comprehension skills altogether is as useless

as one that eliminates phonics and basic skills. Educators should make this clear

whenever possible to the public. Different students have different reading needs,

educators must have the flexibility to diagnose needs in a given case, then provide

the necessary teaching tools (Cirone, 1997).

Society places a high priority on literacy. Reading instruction in both

elementary and secondary schools has undergone many changes throughout the

4 2

years. Many of these changes have resulted in gains in reading achievement.

Despite these gains, schools

are constantly searching for innovative approaches

and programs that will reach all students. This is

necessary since some students

are still functionally illiterate at the time of high school graduation. The goal of all

school systems and teachers is for the improvement of reading

in all children.

Since there is no single method that

seems appropriate for all children, the

recommendation of most current research is that

a combination of these

approaches be used in the teaching of reading. Balance and individualization

have

always been (and still are) the keys to teaching children

to read (VanProoyen &

Clouse, 1994).

Chapter 3

METHOD

Sub'ects

North Marion High School, from which the sample

was taken, is located in

rural, north-central West Virginia, with

a largely middle and lower socio-economic

population. The high school consists of 1056 students and 64 classroom teachers.

The sample consisted of five intact high school remedial reading classes

called English/Reading, taught by one teacher with 18

years experience, eight of

which have been in the area of remedial reading. Students in grades nine through

twelve, whose reading comprehension test scores are considerably below their

grade level, are identified and randomly assigned to the English/Reading classes

through computer scheduling.

Because of this random class selection and in order not to disrupt

institutional routine, the 27 students in three of the five English/Reading classes

were chosen to be the control group, and the 27 students in the other two classes

were chosen to be the experimental group. The control group of 18 boys and 9

girls received traditional, skills-based reading instruction, using workbooks and

work packets. The experimental group of 20 boys and 7 girls received whole

language instruction, using the novel.

4 4

Design

The research design used

was quasi-experimental because of the use of

randomly assigned groups of subjects, rather than randomly

assigned individual

subjects. Since the quasi-experimental design

was used, a pretest was given before

the study began, to determine the homogeneity of the

intact control group and the

intact experimental group with respect to reading comprehension

(the dependent

variable). Similarly, at the completion of the experiment,

a reading comprehension

post-test was administered to assess the similarities/differences between the

two

intact groups, each having been exposed to different independent

variables

(methods of teaching).

The Reading Comprehension Test portion of Advanced 1 Form L of the

Metropolitan Achievement Test was administered

as a pretest to analyze and

compare the control group and the experimental group. An independent t-test was

run at the .05 level to determine if the two groups were homogeneous in the area

of reading comprehension.

The post-test data collected from the results of the Reading Comprehension

Test of Advanced 1 Form M (Mat6) was employed to determine how significant

difference in test scores occurred in the two groups at the end of the study. An

independent t-test was run at the .05 level on the results to determine if significant

differences occurred.

4 5

Experimental Design

Assignment N Pretest

Treatment

Post-Test

Control

27 MAT6 Form L Skills-based

MAT6 Form M

Experimental 27 MAT6 Form L Whole

Language MAT6 Form M

Two separate dependent t-tests,

run at the .05 level, were also used to

analyze the pretest and post-test data from

both the control

group and the

experimental group to determine if the students'

reading comprehension

was

significantly better at the end of the study.

Procedure

At the beginning of the 1997-1998 school

year, the 54 students comprising

the control group and the experimental

group had been randomly placed in five

English/Reading classrooms by computer scheduling. The ten-week

experiment

began the first part of February, 1998, and

was completed mid-April, 1998.

The Reading Comprehension Test of the Metropolitan

Achievement Test,

Advanced 1 Form L, was administered to all 54 students prior

to the inception of

the experiment. Twenty-seven students were included in the control

group which

received traditional, skills-based instruction in remedial reading comprehension.

The other 27 students were included in the experimental

group which received

remedial reading instruction using high-interest, low-level novels.

The daily

4 6

instniction in the skills-based, control group included the

use of various sets of

workbooks and work packets that teach reading comprehension

as a series of

isolated sldlls: Specific Skills Series (Following Directions, Using the Context,

Locating the Answer, Getting the Facts, Getting the Main Idea, Drawing

Conclusions, Detecting Sequence, Identifying Inferences), Reading for Concepts,

New Practice Readers, and Reading and Critical Thinking in the Content Areas.

During the ten-week period, the instructor, rotated the skills workbooks, focusing

the students on one comprehension skill at a time and providing multiple practices

in each skill.

During the same period, the experimental group received instruction in the

guided reading of three novels. The first novel, The Outsiders,

was read orally and

by the entire group. Activities that accompanied the chapter readings

were

vocabulary in context, questions for discussion and written responses in finding

facts and critical evaluation, story mapping, character analysis, prediction, analysis

of the elements of the novel, comparing/contrasting the novel with the video, and a

doze procedure final test. Two additional Tale Spinner novels were chosen by

each individual student as independent study projects. Students were asked to

mimic several of the activities from The Outsiders unit, summarizing chapters,

developing their own vocabulary list, finding main idea, predicting and sequencing

events, making inferences, and drawing conclusions.

The Reading Comprehemsion Test of Advanced 1 Form M (MAT6) was

4 7

given as a post-test to both groups of students in order to determine if any

significant difference in reading comprehension occurred in the two groups at the

end of the ten-week study.

Instrumentation

The Reading Comprehension Test portion of the Metropolitan Achievement

Test, Sixth Edition, (MAT6) was the instrument used in this research. The test

contains 60 items that measure students' comprehension of reading passages. The

reading levels of the 10 passages begin at grade 5 and increase in difficulty to

grade 11+. Though the reading selections in Form L and Form M are different,

both forms are of equal length and difficulty. The 60 item multiple-choice test

assesses students' ability to recognize detail and sequence; infer meaning, cause

and effect, main idea, and character analysis; and draw conclusions, determine

author's purpose, and distinguish fact from opinion.

Objective criteria for the Advanced 1 Level of the MAT6 are in the form of

a raw score, percentile rank, stanine, grade equivalent, and scaled score. (Form M

of the MAT6 follows Form L.) For the purpose of this study, students' raw scores

were used.

4 8

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

This chapter presents the results of the study. The data collected that is

appropriate to the research question and the implications of that data

are discussed.

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this research was to analyze and compare two methods of

teaching reading comprehension in a remedial reading classroom. One approach

implemented a traditional, skills-based approach to remedial reading. The

alternative approach was an integrated, whole-language approach to remedial

reading using the novel. Two groups of high school remedial reading students

were used in the study. The Metropolitan Achievement Test was the instrument

used to evaluate the reading comprehension of the two groups, both before and

after the period of the study, to determine if any significant difference existed in

student performance

Subjects

The control group in the study consisted of 27 students enrolled in English/

Reading classes at North Marion High School who received traditional, skills-

based reading instruction. Sample data for the control group is located in

4 9

Appendix A. The experimental

group included 27 students in English/Reading at

the same location who received whole language

instruction. Sample data for the

experimental group is located in Appendix B.

The gender make-up of the samples is found in Table

1. The control

sample consisted of 18 males and 9 females, while 20 males

and 7 females made

up the experimental sample. This data is graphed in Appendix C.

TABLE 1

Gender of Students in Samples

Group

Number

Males

Females

Control

Experimental 27

The grade level data of the students in the samples are organized in Table 2.

The control group was made up of 7 seniors, 7 juniors, 4 sophomores, and 9

freshmen. The experimental group consisted of 7 seniors, no juniors, 9

sophomores, and 11 freshmen. The graphs in Appendix D show this data.

5 0

TABLE 2

Grade Levels of Students in Samples

Group

Number

Seniors Juniors

Sophomores

Freshmen

Control

27 7

7 4 9

Experimental

0 9

The ages of the students in the sample ranged from nineteen to fifteen.

Table 3 exhibits the age data. The control group consisted of three 19-year-olds,

seven 18-year-olds, four 17-year-olds, three 16-year-olds, and ten 15-year-olds.

Zero 19-year-olds, seven 18-year-olds, five 17-year-olds, nine 16-year-olds, and

six 15-year-olds made up the experimental group. This data is graphed in

Appendix E.

TABLE 3

Ages of Students in Samples

Group

Number

18 17

Control

3 7

3 10

Experimental

Homogeneity

The Reading Comprehension Test of Advanced 1 Form L of the

Metropolitan Achievement Test was administered to both groups of students as a

pretest to analyze and compare the reading comprehension level of students in the

study. Pretest data is located in Appendix F of this study. Using the raw data

given in Appendix F, an independent t-test was run at the .05 level to determine if

the two groups were homogeneous in the area of reading comprehension. Based

on the results of this t-test, as shown in Table 4, the

assumption was made that the

groups were similar; therefore, the study continued.

TABLE 4

Pretest Scores

Reading Comprehension

Group

Number

Mean

T-score

Control

34.85

Experimental

33.67

T-test

-0.4339

Since the t-score was -0.4439, and the critical t-value was 2.0066, the

5 2

sample provided enough evidence to accept the null hypothesis,

indicating no

significant difference at the .05 level, in the reading comprehension

pretest scores

of the control group and the experimental

group.

Further analysis of the raw data on the pretest from Appendix F indicated

that the highest number scored by any individual student in the control

group in

reading comprehension was 48 of a possible 60. The lowest

score was 17, and the

average score 34.85. In the experimental group the high score was 51, the low

score was 12, and the average score was 33.67.

The Hypothesis

Students in a high school remedial reading classroom who receive whole

language instruction using the novel and students who receive

a traditional, skills-

based direction will score equally on a standardized reading comprehension test.

Findings and Interpretations

The ten-week experiment began the first part of February, 1998, and was

completed by mid-April, 1998. During this period, the control group received

traditional, skills-based reading instruction, while the experimental group was

instructed using the whole language method. The Reading Comprehension Test of

the Metropolitan Achievement Test, Advanced 1 Form M, was administered as a

post-test to both the control group and the experimental group in mid-April, 1998.

5 3

The groups consisted of the

same students used in the pretest phase of the study.

Post-test data is located in Appendix G of this

study. Using the raw data given in

Appendix G, an independent t-test

was run at the .05 level to determine if the null

hypothesis would be accepted

or rejected in the area of reading comprehension.

The results of the t-test are shown in Table 5.

TABLE 5

Post-test Scores

Reading Comprehension

Group

Number

Mean

T-score

Control

39.481

Experimental

39.037

T-test

-0.1601

With the t-score of -0.1601 and the critical t-value of 2.0066, the sample

provided enough evidence to accept the null hypothesis, indicating

no significant

difference at the .05 level, in the reading comprehension post-test

scores of the

control group and the experimental group.

Further analysis of the raw data on the post-test from Appendix G indicated

that the highest number scored by an individual student in the control group in

5 9

reading comprehension was 57 of a possible 60, while the lowest

score was 26,

with an average score of 39.481. In the experimental

group the high score was

also 57, the low score was 12

and the average score was 39.037.

In addition, two separate dependent t-tests, run at the .05 level,

were

administered to analyze the pretest and post-test data within each

group to

determine if students' reading comprehension

was significantly improved at the

end of the study. The results of this test are shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6

Comparison of Pretest and Post-test Scores

Reading Comprehension

Group

Number

Mean Difference

T-score

Control

-4.630

-3.6550

Experimental

-5.370

-4.6853

With a critical t-value of 2.0555 and t-scores of -3.6550 and -4.6853, the

sample provided enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis, indicating a

significant improvement in reading comprehension scores within both groups from

pretest to post-test.

5 5

Chapter 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

This study was conducted at North Marion High School during the 1997-

1998 school year. The purpose of the research was to analyze and compare

reading comprehension test results of two groups of high school remedial reading

students. The experimental group of students received reading instruction

implementing an integrated, whole-language approach to remedial reading using

the novel, while the control group was exposed to a more traditional, skills-based

approach to remedial reading. The 27 students in each group were assigned

numbers to keep scores confidential. The Metropolitan Achievement Test was the

measuring device used to collect pretest and post-test data for purposes of analysis

and comparison.

Sample data concerning the gender, age, and grade level of the students in

both groups were collected, charted, and graphed. A t-test was run comparing the

pretest scores of the control group to those of the experimental group to determine

if the two groups were homogeneous. At the .05 level, no significant difference

was found. This indicated that the two groups were homogeneous in the area of

reading comprehension. Following the 10-week experiment in which each group

received different methods of instruction, a t-test was run on the post-test scores of

5 6

the two groups to determine if any significant difference could be found in the

students reading comprehension. At the .05 level, no significant difference in

reading comprehension was found in the two groups, taught by two different

methods.

Conclusions

The pros and cons of various methods of teaching reading have been

debated frequently in various education journals. In the past, most school systems

advocated the exclusive use of basal readers and the intense use of phonics. After

World War II, many school systems adopted a new and innovative approach to

reading called whole language.

The results of this study would seem to indicate that the method of

instruction had no significant effect on the reading comprehension test scores of

students in a high school remedial reading classroom. In this study students taught

using whole language and students taught using skills-based instruction scored

equally as well on the Metropolitan Achievement Test

Since no significant difference was shown in the two methods of reading

instruction in this study, it would seem logical to conclude that a balanced

approach to teaching reading comprehension would be most beneficial to high

school remedial reading students.

Recommendations

For the purpose of future studies in the methods

of teaching high school

remedial reading, the following recommendations

are made:

1. The sample in this study comprised

a small group of students from one high

school. Future studies could include

more students and be conducted in more than

one high school.

2. The time period of this study

was 10 weeks. A similar study encompassing a

longer period of time between pretest and

post-test might be done to examine

significant differences.

3. Using the same data collected in this study,

an analysis could be done

comparing the test results of males to females. Test results of students of the

same

grade level or of the same age could be compared and analyzed.

4. A similar study could be done under the direction and instruction of another

several other teachers and the results compared.

5. A similar study, using less difficult versions of the Metropolitan Achievement

Test, could be done at the elementary or middle school level, to ascertain if there

is a significant difference in methods of reading instruction at different levels of

education.

6. A different testing instrument could be used for evaluation purposes in a similar

study.

7. Since the students in this sample are also required to take the Stanford

Achievement Test each year, reading comprehension scores from that test could be

compared to results found in this study.

8. Since the Metropolitan Achievement Test provides an item analysis, a study

could be conducted, analyziiig student weaknesses in comprehension areas such as

detail and sequence, inference, cause and effect, main idea, character analysis,

drawing conclusions, author's purpose, and fact and opinion.

9. After being exposed to both skills-based reading instruction and whole

language, the students involved in the study could be surveyed to determine which

method they preferred and which method they found to be most beneficial to them.

5 1

5 9

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Appendix A

Control Group Data

SUBJECT

GENDER

GRADE

AGE

11 16

12 18

11 18

11 17

Appendix B

Experimental Group Data

SUBJECT

GENDER

GRADE

AGE

I 1

F 9

6 7

Appendix C

Control Group

Gender

Giris (33.33%)

Boys (66.67%)

Experimental Group

Gender

Giris (25.93%)-'

6 8

Boys (74.07%)

Appendix D

Control Group

Grade

Twelfth (25.93%

Eleventh (25.93%

inth (33.33%)

Tenth (14.81%)

Experimental Group

Grade

Eleventh (0.00%

6 9

Appendix E

Control Group

Age

Nineteen (11.11%)

Eighteen (25.93%)

Fifteen (37.04%)

Seventeen (14.81%)

Sixteen (11.11%)

Experimental Group

Age

Eighteen (25.93%)

Seventeen (18.52%)

Nineteen (0.00%)

Fifteen (22.22%)

7 0

Sixteen (33.33%)

Appendix F

Reading Comprehension

Pre-Test Scores*

SUBJECT

CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

1 36

2 38

3 27

17 35

5 24 12

7 43 38

40 39

47 26

46 50

18 31

19 36

23 41

*possible score of 60

Appendix G

Reading Comprehension

Post-Test Scores*

SUBJECT

CONTROL GROUP

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

* possible score of 60

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