Understanding and Crafting the Mix:

Understanding and

Crafting the Mix:

The Art of Recording

Understanding and

Crafting the Mix:

The Art of Recording

William Moylan

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Moylan, William.

Understanding and crafting the mix : the art of recording / William Moylan

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN-13: 978-0-240-80755-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)

ISBN-10: 0-240-80755-3 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Sound--Recording and

reproducing. 2. Acoustical engineering. 3. Music theory. 4.

Music--Editing. I. Title.

TK7881.4.M693 2006

621.389’32--dc22

2006032818

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

For information on all Newnes publications,

visit our website at www.books.elsevier.com.

07 08 09 10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America

Table of Contents

Listing of Exercises ix

Foreword xii

Preface xvi

Acknowledgments xxi

Introduction xxii

Overview of Organization and Materials xxiii

Establishing an Accurate Playback of Recordings xxvii

Part One

Deﬁ ning the Art of Recording: The Sound Characteristics

and Aesthetic Qualities of Audio Recordings

Chapter 1

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

The States of Sound 3

Physical Dimensions of Sound 5

Perceived Parameters of Sound 15

Summary 34

Exercises 35

Chapter 2

The Aesthetic and Artistic Elements

of Sound in Audio Recordings

The States of Sound and the Aesthetic/Artistic Elements 37

Pitch Levels and Relationships 38

Dynamic Levels and Relationships 42

Rhythmic Patterns and Rates of Activities 45

Sound Sources and Sound Quality 46

Spatial Properties: Stereo and Surround Sound 48

Conclusion 59

Exercises 60

Contents

Chapter 3

The Musical Message and the Listener

The Musical Message 61

Musical Form and Structure 63

Musical Materials 65

The Relationships of Artistic Elements and Musical Materials 66

Equivalence and the Expression of Musical Ideas 68

Text as Song Lyrics 70

The Listener 73

Conclusion 80

Exercises 81

Part Two

Understanding the Mix: Developing Listening

and Sound Evaluation Skills

Chapter 4

Listening and Evaluating Sound for the

Audio Professional

Why Audio Professionals Need to Evaluate Sound 86

Talking About Sound 87

The Listening Process 89

Personal Development for Listening and Sound Evaluation 95

Summary 98

Exercises 99

Chapter 5

A System for Evaluating Sound

100

System Overview 100

Sound Evaluation Sequence 103

Graphing the States and Activity of Sound Components 106

Plotting Sources Against a Time Line 112

Summary 114

Exercises 115

Chapter 6

Evaluating Pitch in Audio and Music Recordings

11 8

Analytical Systems 119

Realizing a Sense of Pitch 120

Recognizing Pitch Levels 121

Pitch Area and Frequency Band Recognition 124

Melodic Contour 131

Exercises 134

Chapter 7

Evaluating Loudness in Audio and

Music Recordings

138

Reference Levels and the Hierarchy of Dynamics 139

Program Dynamic Contour 146

Musical Balance 149

Contents

vii

Performance Intensity versus Musical Balance 151

Exercises 153

Chapter 8

Evaluating Sound Quality

157

Sound Quality in Critical Listening Contexts 158

Sound Quality in Analytical Listening Contexts 159

Sound Quality and Perspective 160

Evaluating the Characteristics of Sound Quality and Timbre 161

Summary 173

Exercises 174

Chapter 9

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of

Reproduced Sound

176

Understanding Space as an Artistic Element 177

Stereo Sound Location 184

Distance Location 188

Environmental Characteristics 195

Space within Space 203

Surround Sound 207

Exercises 215

Chapter 10

Complete Evaluations and

Understanding Observations

224

Pitch Density and Timbral Balance 225

The Overall Texture 230

Relationships of the Individual Sound Sources and the

Overall Texture 233

The Complete Evaluation 239

Using Graphs for Making Evaluations and in Production Work 247

Summary 247

Exercises 249

Part Three

Crafting the Mix: Shaping Music and Sound, and

Controlling the Recording Process

Chapter 11

Bringing Artistic Judgment to the

Recording Process

255

Part Three Overview 255

The Signal Chain 256

Guiding the Creation of Music 259

Summary 260

Chapter 12

The Aesthetics of Recording Production

261

The Artistic Roles of the Recordist 262

The Recording and Reality: Shaping the Recording Aesthetic 263

Contents

viii

The Recording Aesthetic in Relation to the Performance Event 266

Altered Realities of Music Performance 271

Summary 274

Chapter 13

Preliminary Stages: Deﬁ ning the Materials

of the Project

275

Sound Sources as Artistic Resources, and the Choice of Timbres 277

Microphones: The Aesthetic Decisions of Capturing Timbres 280

Equipment Selection: Application of Inherent Sound Quality 295

Monitoring: The Sound Quality of Playback 298

Summary 306

Exercises 307

Chapter 14

Capturing, Shaping and Creating the

Performance

310

Recording and Tracking Sessions: Shifting of Focus

and Perspectives 311

Signal Processing: Shifting of Perspective to Reshape

Sounds and Music 317

The Mix: Composing and Performing the Recording 319

Summary 335

Exercises 335

Chapter 15

The Final Artistic Processes and an

Overview of Music Production Sequences

339

An Overview of Two Sequences for Creating a Music Recording 340

Editing: Rearranging and Suspending Time 344

Mastering: The Final Artistic Decisions 349

The Listener’s Alterations to the Recording 354

Concluding Remarks 355

Exercises 356

CD Contents and Track Descriptions 359

Glossary 369

Bibliography 381

Discography 389

Index 391

Listing of Exercises

These exercises are designed to develop listening, evaluation and produc-

tion skills.

Exercise 1-1

Learning the Sound Quality of the Harmonic Series.

Exercise 2-1

General Musical Balance and Performance Intensity Observations.

Exercise 3-1

Structure Exercise.

Exercise 4-1

Musical Memory Development Exercise.

Exercise 5-1

Exercise in Graphing Clock Time.

Exercise 5-2

Time Judgment Exercise.

Exercise 5-3

Exercise for Plotting the Presence of Sound Sources Against the Time Line.

Exercise 6-1

Pitch Reference Exercise.

Exercise 6-2

Pitch Level Estimation Exercise.

Exercise 6-3

Pitch Area Analysis Exercise.

Exercise 6-4

Melodic Contour Analysis Exercise.

Exercise 7-1

Reference Dynamic Level Exercise.

Listing of Exercises

Exercise 7-2

Program Dynamic Contour Exercise.

Exercise 7-3

Musical Balance Exercise.

Exercise 7-4

Performance Intensity versus Musical Balance Exercise.

Exercise 8-1

Describing Sound Exercise.

Exercise 8-2

Sound Quality Evaluation Exercise.

Exercise 9-1

Stereo Location Exercise.

Exercise 9-2

Distance Location Exercise.

Exercise 9-3

Reﬂ ections and Reverberation Exercise.

Exercise 9-4

Environmental Characteristics Spectrum and Spectral Envelope Exercise.

Exercise 9-5

Environmental Characteristics Exercise.

Exercise 9-6

Exercise in Determining the Environmental Characteristics of the Perceived

Performance Environment.

Exercise 9-7

Space Within Space Exercise.

Exercise 9-8

Surround Sound Location Exercises.

a. Audience Perspective

b. Ensemble Perspective

Exercise 10-1

Pitch Density Exercise.

Exercise 10-2

Timbral Balance Exercise.

Exercise 10-3

Shifting Focus and Perspective Exercise.

Listing of Exercises

Exercise 13-1

Loudness Perception Exercise.

Exercise 13-2

Identifying and Comparing Microphone Characteristics.

Exercise 13-3

Comparing Microphone Placements.

Exercises 13-4

Additional Exercises for Microphone Techniques.

Exercises 14-1

Tracking Exercises.

a. Input and Output

b. Microphone Selection and Placement

c. Performance Related Issues

Exercises 14-2

Signal Processing Exercises.

a. Equalization

b. Noise Gates

c. Compressors

d. Delay

e. Reverb

f. Filters

Exercises 14-3

Mixing Exercises.

a. Musical Balance

b. Timbral Balance

c. Stereo Location

d. Distance Location

Exercises 15-1

Exercises Modifying Completed Mixes.

a. Compression

b. Equalization

c. Reverberation

d. Limiting

xii

Foreword

Nowhere within the mystery of creation is the concept of inﬁ nity more

closely demonstrated than in the human response to sound.

Sounds

barely audible in the quiet solitude of a forest glade contain infor-

mation about direction, height, distance and character which unconscious-

ly provide awareness of our surroundings.

Sounds

as you step into a great cathedral, hearing nearby soft footfalls on

ancient ﬂ agstones, the singing of a distant choir provides clues of distance

and perspective, and even invites sharing of mood.

Sounds

in a concert hall, an ofﬁ ce, a bathroom or a recording studio, each

has its own message prompting our response.

Blindfold, the smallest sample provides amazing awareness of our

environment.

The way sound behaves within a space paints a picture. We don’t have

to analyze, measure or evaluate. Created in the image of a communicat-

ing God, we communicate with speech to express what we think and with

music to express what we feel.

Music is as old as man. References to music, song, poetry and musical

instruments go back thousands of years. We see Egyptian bas-reliefs and

know that music played an enormous part in their culture and religion. Near

the end of King David’s reign, the Hebrews had professional Temple choirs

and a 4000 strong orchestra.

We read of strolling minstrels and court musi-

cians of later ages. But what did they sound like?

Every age of man is recorded in writing, painting and sculpture, but there

are no sound recordings.

Today we can choose from vast libraries of music from any part of the world,

which have become the benchmarks of artistic and technical quality for

many thousands of people who may never have even been to a concert.

Technical quality has improved enormously over the years but, surprising-

ly, we can still enjoy the very earliest recordings with all their imperfections

Foreword

xiii

of noise, distortion, limited bandwidth and poor dynamic range. Why, then,

is The Art of Recording important?

As technology advances, realism has become more accurate but it seems

that the artistic qualities of a performance have become more elusive. Nei-

ther accuracy nor artistry can be tabulated in some book of rules. Unlike

hardware design—for example, computers, where precision and speed pre-

dominate and the ﬁ gures accurately deﬁ ne the performance—in the ﬁ eld

of sound recording, speciﬁ cations and measurements cannot describe the

sounds that we hear and neither can they predict the effect of those sounds

on us. The recordist must provide the vital link as our interpreter.

In the 1953 Fourth Edition of his

Radio Designer’s Handbook, Langford-

Smith states: “It is common practice to regard the ear as the ﬁ nal judge of

ﬁ delity, but this can only give a true judgment when the listener has acute

hearing, a keen ear for distortion and is not in the habit of listening to dis-

torted music. A listener with a keen ear for distortion can only cultivate this

faculty by making frequent direct comparisons with the original music in

the concert hall.”

We must cultivate “A Point of Reference.”

Truly successful recordists and producers have developed very high

degrees of reﬁ nement and can perceive qualities (or the lack of them!) in

the sound recording and reproducing chain which seem to defy reason and

sometimes to contradict our current state of knowledge.

In 1977, Geoff Emmerick, who with George Martin recorded The Beatles at

Abbey Road and later at Air Studios in London, showed me that he could

hear a difference between two identical channels on a recently delivered

new console. After some hours of listening with him, I agreed that I could

hear a subtle difference. When we measured I found that, out of 48 chan-

nels, three had been incorrectly terminated and displayed a rise of 3 dB

at 54 kHz. The limit of hearing for most humans does not extend beyond

20 kHz and this small resonance, whilst obviously an oversight in the fac-

tory, would not normally have been regarded as important.

One of the signiﬁ cant features of this episode was that Geoff was deeply

“unhappy,” even “distressed” at what he was hearing or perceiving.

Since then I have seen much more evidence that the range beyond 20 kHz

is part of human awareness. Newly introduced designs which transmit fre-

quencies to beyond 100 kHz (with low distortion and noise) surprisingly

sound warmer, sweeter and fuller.

In 1987, when addressing the Institute of Broadcast Sound in London, I car-

ried out a simple experiment for the ﬁ rst time, with the object of discover-

ing what effect frequencies above 20 kHz might have on a professionally

aware audience.

Foreword

xiv

A generator capable of switching between a sine and a square wave was

fed through an “ordinary” ampliﬁ er to an “ordinary” monitor loudspeaker.

The frequency was set at 3 kHz. The audience conﬁ rmed that they could

hear the third harmonic as a superimposed 9 kHz tone or “whistle,” when

the generator was switched to square wave. (A square wave contains pre-

dominantly odd harmonics. When the ﬁ rst of these exceeds the limit of

hearing, the sine and square wave should sound the same.)

The frequency was then progressively raised and older members soon admit-

ted that they could no longer hear the third harmonic “whistle.” But all could

still hear a

difference in quality as the generator was switched between sine

and square. As the frequency continued to be slowly raised, some could still

identify a difference when the fundamental had reached 15 kHz.

This experiment has been repeated many times in different parts of the

world without any real attempt at scientiﬁ c control. “Ordinary” equipment

provided by my host was used on every occasion. Results have been sur-

prisingly consistent: some 35 to 45 percent of those present being able to

identify a quality difference when the fundamental was as high as 15 kHz.

There was one exception: at the University of Massachusetts Lowell, some

60 percent of the audience were still identifying a difference when the fun-

damental frequency had exceeded 17 kHz.

At the 83rd Convention of the Audio Engineering Society, Dr. William

Moylan proposed a “Systematic Method for the Aural Analysis of Sound

Sources.”

Dr. Moylan uses his method at the University of Massachusetts

Lowell Department of Music. I think this points to the success of Dr. Moylan’s

training in aural analysis! This same method has led to this book.

No measurements or formulae can ever replace the recordist, but he must

develop a reliable Point of Reference and learn “The Art of Recording.”

The learning process is endless. We never arrive at an ultimate state of

knowledge. We are, even now, only scratching the surface and this is espe-

cially so as we explore new formats to convey not only technical excellence

but a whole listening experience of music and its environment.

Can there be a perfect recording?

Only if we could arrive at perfect knowledge. How then, should such knowl-

edge be used? Could it change, for example, the world in which we live?

Stephen Hawking, in

A Brief History of Time,

seeks a uniﬁ ed theory—draw-

ing together the general theory of relativity and of quantum mechanics—

which would lead to a complete understanding of the events around us and

of our own existence. He says: “If we ﬁ nd the answer to that, it would be

the ultimate triumph of human reason—for then we would know the mind

of God.”

Foreword

We need open minds to envision direction, responsible minds to choose

direction and a Point of Reference beyond ourselves to Whom we are ulti-

mately answerable.

Well over one hundred years ago, Lord Rayleigh told us that the ears are

the ﬁ nal arbiter of sound: “Directly or indirectly, all questions connected

with this subject must come for decision to the ear, as the organ of hearing;

and from it there can be no appeal. But we are not, therefore, to infer that

all acoustical investigations are conducted with the unassisted ear. When

once we have discovered the physical phenomena which constitute the

foundation of sound, our explorations are, in great measure transferred

to another ﬁ eld lying within the dominion of the principles of Mechanics.

Important laws are in this way arrived at, to which the sensations of the ear

cannot but conform.”

To follow William Moylan’s “important laws” will prepare your ears and your

mind for the true “Art of Recording.” His approach is proven and will lead the

reader’s ears to the reﬁ ned levels of “keen-ness” and “acuteness” required

today. Dr. Moylan’s book also gives us insight into what turns “Recording”

into “Art,” and provides ways to bring artistic sensibility into our work.

Rupert Neve

Wimberley, TX

September 2001

Endnotes

Bible. 1 Chronicles 23:5. “ . . . and four thousand are to praise the LORD

with the musical instruments I have provided for that purpose.”

F. Langford-Smith, editor,

Radio Designer’s Handbook, 4th edition,

Sydney, New South Wales: Wireless Press for Amalgamated Wireless

Valve Company Pty. Ltd, 1953, Ch.14, Section 12, (iii).

William Moylan, “A Systematic Method for the Aural Analysis of Sound

Sources in Audio Reproduction/ Reinforcement, Communications and

Musical Contexts,” paper read at the 83rd Convention of the Audio En-

gineering Society, October, 1987.

Stephen W. Hawking,

A Brief History of Time (Bantam Press, Toronto,

1992), pp. 173–175.

Lord Rayleigh,

The Theory of Sound, ﬁ rst edition, 1877, New York: Dover

Publications, 1945.

xvi

Preface

This second edition carries a reversal of the title. This reﬂ ects my goal of

bringing the reader to a better understanding of the sound qualities of

recordings that will bring them to craft recordings that reﬂ ect focused artis-

tic and aesthetic vision; in short, to assist the reader in making the record-

ings they

want to make, and to help them understand the recordings of

others.

Two important additions for this edition are an accompanying CD of

56 tracks to illustrate many key concepts, to assist in developing certain lis-

tening skills and to aid in establishing an accurate playback system; and a

glossary of terms and concepts to assist the reader in keeping track of new

concepts. A section added to the Introduction discusses “Establishing a

Quality Playback System;” it is extremely important for a reader’s playback

system to be accurate in order to hear and understand the book’s materials

correctly.

Part Three is signiﬁ cantly expanded in this second edition to bring more

focus onto crafting the mix. The accompanying CD, numerous exercises,

and more detailed discussions on aesthetics, techniques and objectives

clarify what is needed to craft a recording. Part Two addresses sound qual-

ity and timbre evaluation in greater depth and uses the CD to clarify impor-

tant concepts; surround sound is given fuller coverage and has evolved;

and Chapter 10 has been extensively reworked and expanded to include

a section on “Shifting Focus and Perspective,” more coverage of timbral

balance and pitch density, reworking “Complete Evaluations” to delineate

between the overall texture and the individual sound source.

From the First Edition

Understanding and Crafting the Mix: The Art of Recording is the product of

my experiences as an educator in sound recording technology (music and

technology), and of my thought processes and observations as a composer

of acoustic music and of music for recordings (recording productions and

electronic music). It includes what I have learned through my creative work

Preface

xvii

as a recording producer and through my attempts to be a facile and trans-

parent recording engineer. It includes in-depth research into how we hear

music and sound as reproduced through loudspeakers (aural perception,

music cognition), and into the use of the recording medium to enhance

artistic expression, especially in music.

This book has evolved substantially since my initial research in the early

1980s. It has been greatly shaped by years of devising instructional meth-

ods and materials in my courses at the University of Massachusetts Lowell,

and by my interaction with many other audio educators and observations of

other recording programs worldwide. This evolution has been enhanced by

many other people and experiences as well—closely working with numer-

ous, talented production professionals in the audio industry representing

many different types and sizes of facilities in many locations, and many

conversations with individuals and companies engaged in audio product

development, design, and manufacturing.

The concepts and methods of this book have gone through many stages of

development. They will continue to change with new technologies and pro-

duction techniques and will continue to be reﬁ ned as we learn more about

what we hear, and how we perceive sound and understand art.

I continue to be fascinated by how audio recording can be used to add

unique artistic qualities to music, and I look forward to the next new music

recording and the next new development in audio technology.

Purpose

Understanding and Crafting the Mix: The Art of Recording seeks to bring

the reader to understand how recorded sound is different from live sound,

and how those differences can enhance music. It will bring the reader to

explore how those sound characteristics appear in signiﬁ cant readings by

The Beatles and others. The book also presents a system for the develop-

ment of critical and analytical listening skills necessary to recognize and

understand these sound characteristics.

This leads to the production process itself. The book seeks to move the

reader to consider audio recording as a creative process. Techniques and

technologies are purposely not covered. Instead, the book explores the

recording process as an act of creating art, and helps the reader envision

recording devices as musical instruments. It seeks to develop an artistic

sensitivity that will lead the reader to ﬁ nd and create their own unique

artistic voice in shaping and creating music recordings.

Unchanged from the ﬁ rst edition,

Understanding and Crafting the Mix:

The Art of Recording

is intended to be used: (1) as a resource book for all

people involved in audio; (2) as a textbook for courses in recording anal-

ysis, critical listening (listening skills-related courses), audio production-

Preface

xviii

related courses of all types in sound recording technology, music engineer-

ing, music technology, media/communications, or related programs; or (3)

as a self-learning text for the motivated student, beginning professional or

interested amateur. It can also provide a unique look at some of the most

important recordings by The Beatles for all who may be interested. It has

been written to be accessible by people with limited backgrounds in acous-

tics, engineering, physics, math and music.

The intended reader might be an active professional in any one of the

many areas of the audio recording industry, or a student studying for a

career in the industry. The reader might also be learning recording through

self-directed study, or be anyone interested in learning about recording

and recorded sound, perhaps an audiophile.

The portions of the book addressing sound quality evaluation will be direct-

ly applicable to all individuals who work with sound. Audio engineers in

technical areas will beneﬁ t from this knowledge, and the related listening

skills, as much as individuals in creative, production positions. Even those

involved in consumer audio and pro audio sales can beneﬁ t. All those peo-

ple who talk “about” sound can make use of the approach to evaluating

sound that is presented.

Finally, people interested in the music of The Beatles might gain new

insights. Discussions and examinations of their recordings appear through-

out the book. The timelessness of their music, and their use of then experi-

mental techniques and technologies, make these recordings especially

useful and appropriate. The reader may ﬁ nd these examples interesting

points of departure for further study of their music and their creative use

of recording.

As a resource book,

Understanding and Crafting the Mix: The Art of Record-

ing is designed to contribute to the professional development of recordists.

The book seeks to clearly deﬁ ne the sonic dimensions of audio record-

ing, and brings the reader to approach recording production creatively. It

further seeks to expand the current professionals’ creative thinking, their

skills in critical and analytical listening, and their skill in and sensitivity to

accurate and meaningful communication about sound quality.

Many people actively engaged in the creative and artistic roles of the indus-

try are hard-pressed to describe their creative thought processes. The actu-

al materials they are crafting have not previously been well deﬁ ned. The

current professional has likely had little guidance in identifying the skills

required in audio-recording production; it is likely their current skills were

developed intuitively and with little outside assistance. The recordist may

already have highly developed creative abilities and listening skills, yet be

unaware of the dimensions of those skills. This book will address these

areas, and assist the current and future professionals in discovering new

dimensions within their unique and personal creative voice.

Preface

xix

Many excellent books exist on recording techniques and audio technolo-

gies. Articles in many excellent magazines, journals and serials exist that

cover recording devices and techniques, audio technologies and acoustic

concerns. These areas are not addressed here.

No sourcebooks or textbooks currently exist that discuss the aesthetic and

creative aspects of recording music or audio production. Few books exist

that discuss and develop the listening skills required to evaluate recordings

for technical quality, and none to evaluate the artistry of recordings or to

analyze the artistic content of recordings. This book seeks to ﬁ ll this void.

It may be used as a sourcebook or a textbook in all of these areas, from

beginning through the most advanced levels.

The book may be used in a wide variety of courses, in many college and

university degree programs, and in vocational-type programs in audio and

music recording. Music engineering or music production (sound record-

ing technology) programs; music technology programs; communications,

multimedia, media, ﬁ lm, radio/television, or telecommunications pro-

grams; and music composition programs emphasizing electronic/comput-

er music composition will all have courses that speak to the artistic aspects

of recording music (and sound).

The book is well suited to developing the student’s music- production skills

and artistry. It is designed to stimulate thought about the recording process

as being a collection of creative resources. These skills and creative ideas

can then be applied to the act of crafting the music recording artistically.

As a textbook for sound evaluation and listening-skill development,

Under-

standing and Crafting the Mix: The Art of Recording can be used for instruc-

tion at various skill levels. The instructor may determine the levels of detail

and proﬁ ciency required of the students in performing listening evaluations

and adjust these studies and exercises accordingly. The development of lis-

tening skills is a lengthy and involved process that will go through many

stages of accomplishment. The book is useable by students at the beginning

of their studies or at the most advanced levels, for graduate students as

well as for undergraduates and students in short courses and programs.

Graphing the activity of the various artistic elements is important for devel-

oping listening and evaluation skills, especially during beginning studies.

It is also valuable for performing in-depth evaluations of recordings that

allow us to study how the artistic aspects of recording have been used by

accomplished recording producers. This process of graphing the activity of

the various artistic elements is also a useful documentation tool. Working

professionals through beginning students will ﬁ nd the process useful.

Finally, it is hoped this book will clarify communication in some small way

and in some small segment of our industry.

Preface

All audio professionals are required to communicate “about” sound. The

many artistic and technical people of the industry need to communicate

clearly. We in the industry presently function without this meaningful

exchange of ideas. We often do not communicate well or accurately. In

order for communication to occur, a vocabulary must be present; terms

or descriptions must mean the same thing to the people involved, and the

terms must apply to something speciﬁ c within the sound. It is my hope

that this book might serve as a meaningful point of departure for an “audio

recording vocabulary” to be devised.

xxi

Acknowledgments

My sincere thanks to Catharine Steers, Emma Baxter and Beth Howard

for bringing me through this second edition, as well as the other wonder-

ful editorial staff and production people at Focal Press and Elsevier—who

might be too numerous to mention but who have all made my work easier

and more enjoyable by their professionalism and constant willingness to

help. I am honored to be afﬁ liated with this extraordinary organization and

group of people.

My students in the Sound Recording Technology program at the University

of Massachusetts Lowell have worked through the materials and concepts

of this book in a number of forms and have taught me a great deal. My

special thanks to these serious and gifted young people for their (largely

unknowing) contributions to this project.

Many other people have provided support for this book, or assisted in

shaping my thoughts about these materials. While they are far too many to

mention, they are all very important to me. Only a very few follow.

Thanks to Phil Reese, Erh-Chaun Lai, and Mark Whittaker for working

through some of the graphs and exercises, and to Ben Burrows and Alex

Case for their ideas on some of the book’s concepts.

The enclosed CD is a major addition from the ﬁ rst edition. My gratitude to

Eli Cohn, David Janco, Thomas Yahoub, Daniel Bolton and Sage Atwood

for giving of their talents and providing the CD’s performances; to Phillip

Reese for the long hours and hard work throughout this production, and to

Erh-Chaun Lai for his production assistance; and ﬁ nally to Adam Ayan,

Scott Sperlich, Bob and Gail Ludwig and all the great people at Gateway

Mastering Studios for their exceptional work and care.

I am deeply indebted to Mr. Rupert Neve for generously giving of his time and

energies to provide his great insight to this book by writing its Foreword.

Finally, a special acknowledgment to Vicki and Zachary for their tolerance,

support, and reminders of what is important; and for making my life very

special.

xxii

Introduction

What makes recording music an art?

What makes the music recording a unique medium for artistic

expression?

What is different between a music recording and a live music

performance?

Why has the recordist (recording producer or engineer) become recognized

as an artist?

How does the recording process (recording techniques and technologies)

shape a piece of music?

It is widely recognized that the recording process shapes music. Recording

techniques and technologies change the qualities of acoustic sound and

impart new sound characteristics. These sound qualities are under the con-

trol of an individual that shapes the music recording—the recordist.

The changes in sound quality that are created by recording do not occur

in nature. They are unique to audio recordings and give recorded music

(or music reproduced over loudspeakers) a set of unique sound character-

istics. These characteristics may be very different from a live, unampliﬁ ed

performance. These sound qualities have become accepted as part of the

experience of listening to recorded and reproduced sound, and of music.

The unique sound qualities of recording contribute to the character of a

recorded piece of music; they become part of the piece of music. How a

piece of music might be shaped has thus been extended to include the

unique sound qualities of music recordings. The person controlling, or cre-

ating, these sound qualities (the recordist) is functioning as a creative art-

ist. This person is a musician of sorts—“conducting” by encouraging and

ensuring quality performances, “performing” recording, mixing and pro-

cessing devices, and “composing” the mix.

Introduction

xxiii

Overview of Organization and Materials

The questions above will be answered during the course of this book. The

elements of sound that shape the artistic qualities of recordings have not

previously been deﬁ ned. The deﬁ nitions offered herein will allow for the

understanding necessary to deﬁ ne these questions. This book will demon-

strate how these aspects of sound are shaped in the recording process and

will examine their appearance in well-known recordings by The Beatles.

A system for developing listening skills and understanding the artistry of

music recordings will also be presented. Through this process and its many

related exercises the reader will be brought to gain understanding of and

control over shaping the artistic aspects of audio recordings.

Accordingly, the book is divided into three parts:

• Part One deﬁ nes the artistic dimensions and sound characteristics of

music recordings

• Part Two leads to an understanding of how those artistic dimensions

and sound characteristics are commonly used in production practice

and carries the reader through a system for listening-skill development

• Part Three explores the process of artistically crafting a music recording

Part One. Deﬁ ning the Art of Recording: The Sound Characteris-

tics and Aesthetic Qualities of Audio Recordings

Part One is divided into three chapters. To begin deﬁ ning the artistic dimen-

sions of music recordings, sound must be understood. The states of sound

in air, in human perception, and as applied to music are followed in the

sequence of understanding the meaning of sounds. The processes of mov-

ing from one state of sound to another are explored. The anomalies that

occur in the transfer processes are recognized and evaluated.

Sound as a resource for artistic expression is the basis for Chapter 2.

This encompasses the unique sound qualities of recordings, and the poten-

tial of those qualities to be used in artistic expression. This is followed by

an examination of the musical message itself, leading to how musical

materials are perceived by the listener, and how that perception leads to

the understanding of musical messages and to communication.

Part One centers around understanding sound and the listening process

itself. It brings to light the importance of the listener in the communication

of musical materials.

People listen to sound and music at various levels of intellectual involve-

ment. They will at times listen passively and take an undirected “journey”

through the sensual and emotive states of the music. They might seek an

understanding of any literary or extra-musical ideas in the music (with the

presence and inﬂ uences of any text or other image-inducing associations).

Introduction

xxiv

Listening can also take the form of an aesthetic listening experience (appre-

ciating the interrelationships of the abstract musical materials). These and

others are basically recreational, entertainment, therapeutic or self-enrich-

ment activities. The listening process is approached much differently when

it is part of one’s work.

When the listening process is approached as part of the professional

recordist’s responsibilities, it is always an active process that has the lis-

tener consciously engaged. How one listens, and what one listens for, is a

central concern for the recordist. Listening is one of the primary responsi-

bilities of the recordist. Any person wishing to enter the recording industry

must develop their listening skills in one way or another.

Different positions might require very different skills and responsibilities,

but nearly all careers in audio involve listening to, evaluating and/or

describing sound.

Part Two. Understanding the Mix: Developing Listening and

Sound Evaluation Skills

Part Two presents a complete system for evaluating the dimensions of

sound in music and audio recordings. The need for sound evaluation and

the contexts for sound evaluation in music recordings are discussed at the

beginning of this section.

Each element of sound is evaluated separately. How each element is used

to shape music recordings is presented. A method of evaluation has been

speciﬁ cally devised for each individual element, and reﬂ ects actual use of

the elements in music recordings. Recordings by The Beatles are used as

examples of the qualities of sound being discussed. They provide excellent

examples of how the unique sound qualities of recordings have enhanced

the music and have at times contributed in fundamental ways to shaping

musical ideas.

The methods of evaluation for each individual sound quality are accom-

plished in relation to a complete, interrelated system of evaluating sound

in music recordings. A series of listening exercises is presented throughout

the course of the book to guide the reader in developing sound evaluation

and listening skills.

The system progresses from simple concepts and listening processes to

the most complex. It builds on experiences that are most easily learned

and evolves systematically to the most difﬁ cult. Listening experiences

that many audio professionals or intermediate-level musicians may have

already acquired (at least intuitively) are incorporated.

The system will develop the reader’s listening skills and will provide the

basis for meaningful and accurate communication on sound content and

quality.

Introduction

xxv

An objective vocabulary and a way to evaluate sound have been devised

to allow precise information about sound to be recognized and communi-

cated. This information will be an actual account of the states or values of

the sound material. Subjective impressions of the sound’s quality (a very

common way musicians and recordists attempt to communicate about

sound) are always avoided. They do not allow communication to be accu-

rate and limit its value. The method avoids any personal impressions about

the sound quality and addresses only the physical dimensions of sound as

they are perceived and as they appear in the music. The method for eval-

uating sound will allow individuals to talk “about” sound in meaningful

ways. It will allow people to exchange precise and conclusive information

about the sound qualities, once they acquire the skills required to recognize

those qualities.

The reader will eventually gain the experience and the knowledge that will

allow them to perform quite complex listening and evaluation tasks, and to

describe sounds to others.

Time, practice, understanding, repetition, and concentrated effort are all

required to develop listening skills. Auditory memory will increase as the

listener becomes more accustomed to the sound material, more aware of

patterns of levels and changes within all of the artistic elements, and more

aware of how to focus attention on the aspects of sound we are condi-

tioned from birth to ignore. Developing reﬁ ned listening skills is a long-

term project; the individual’s listening skills will likely continue to develop

throughout their career.

Part Three. Crafting the Mix: Shaping Music and Sound, and

Controlling the Recording Process

Part Three applies the artistic elements to the recording production process.

It presents the concepts and thought processes of recording production,

and relates them to the artistic aspects of recording and the artistic ele-

ments of sound. It will explore the concepts the recordist will work through

during the creative processes of crafting a music recording.

Part Three deﬁ nes general principles. It will not present speciﬁ c ways to

record, nor will it address speciﬁ c pieces of equipment or speciﬁ c record-

ing techniques. The principles covered will allow the reader to conceptualize

music recording as a creative process; it will place the reader in the posi-

tion of guiding the artistic product from its beginning as an idea, through its

development during the many stages of the recording sequence, to its ﬁ nal

form. It is intended to separate tools from technique, to bring the reader to

conceptualize the recording project without concern for the ever-changing

ﬂ ow of devices.

This approach will explore the creative potentials of the audio recording

medium independently from equipment and technology concerns. How the

Introduction

xxvi

recording process shapes the characteristics of sounds will be explored,

and ways the reader can establish and exercise control of the artistry of

recording will be presented. The resources of the recording process are

considered for their potential to capture sound qualities, to perform the

music recording, and to generate the relationships of a piece of music.

The reader is encouraged to use their new listening and evaluation skills

to explore the productions of others and to try to emulate similar ideas in

their own productions—to develop their craft and their art.

Two possible recording production sequences are presented and contrast-

ed. Through these two scenarios, the aesthetic and artistic concerns of the

recording production process are evaluated. The artistic roles (or functions)

of the recordist are contrasted in relation to the sequences.

It is a goal of

Understanding and Crafting the Mix: The Art of Recording to

bring the reader to explore the creative potentials of the medium’s tools

(equipment) as musical instruments and to develop an artistic sensitivity

through studying and understanding the creative works of others (Part

Two).

Applying the artistic elements of recording to the recording process (Part

Three) and evaluating the artistic elements in the recording process (Part

Two) will often occur simultaneously in production practice. They are,

however, two distinct processes. They are presented separately here for

clarity and for a thorough presentation. The two are interdependent, when

considering the evaluation of sound that occurs during the recording

production process.

Accompanying CD

Accompanying this book is a CD containing 56 tracks. Examples illustrate

many key concepts, and the reader will be referred to the CD during the

course of reading the text. Many examples will assist in developing impor-

tant listening skills, and other tracks will present dimensions of recorded

sound in ways that are more easily recognized than in most commercial

recordings. The reader will often want to listen to the CD while reading

certain sections; the CD is meant to clarify materials and make some of the

more abstract concepts much more tangible.

At the end of the CD are three tracks intended to aid in establishing an accu-

rate playback system. These are at the end of the CD so the reader does not

have to hear them each time the CD is started. Readers are strongly encour-

aged to evaluate their sound systems. Accurate and quality playback of the

enclosed CD, and of the commercial recordings cited throughout the book,

is necessary if the reader is to understand the materials being presented.

Introduction

xxvii

Establishing an Accurate Playback of Recordings

A reasonable-quality, accurate playback system located in an acceptable lis-

tening environment is needed to experience and learn the material discussed

in this book. It is important that the recorded examples be heard as intend-

ed—with a minimum of change from the playback system and the room—in

order to learn the materials being discussed. The reader should have access

to such a system in order to beneﬁ t from the readings. Headphones are not a

suitable substitute for accurate listening to nearly all of the examples.

High-resolution monitors in an acoustically neutral environment and an

impeccable signal chain are required for many activities performed by pro-

fessional recordists. It is not at all realistic to expect a beginner in the indus-

try, a student or an interested amateur to have such a system. It is, however,

necessary for the reader to hear the accompanying CD and the commercial

recordings cited throughout the book with some semblance of accuracy.

Putting together a quality sound system and establishing an accurate play-

back environment are covered in Chapter 13. Topics presented are:

• Components and speciﬁ cations for a high-quality playback system to

provide unaltered, detailed sound

• Loudspeaker placement and listening-room interaction

• Listener distance and orientation to loudspeakers

• Monitoring levels

If readers are uncertain about having a suitable playback system, they are

encouraged to look over that material now, or certainly before playing any

of the listening examples.

The sound-system evaluation tracks (Tracks 54–56) on the accompanying CD

can help the reader evaluate their current system. It is strongly suggested

that readers do so in order to know the performance of their system, and

to ensure it is properly set up. It is also recommended they acquire a sound

level meter. The meter will not only assist in evaluating their

system, but will also help the reader to work through a num-

ber of exercises in this book and will lead the reader to estab-

lish accurate and healthy monitoring practices.

If a reader cannot establish a reasonable quality of play-

back on their own, they are strongly encouraged to ﬁ nd a

suitable location where they can listen to the recordings

that are cited. This is an important part of learning the mate-

rials presented.

Summary

Part One provides the necessary background to recognize the qualities of

sound. It deﬁ nes the sound characteristics and aesthetic qualities of audio

Listen . . .

to tracks 54-56

for playback system set-up and

calibration material; read the

track descriptions for assistance.

Introduction

xxviii

and music recordings. It brings the reader to understand how the recording

process enhances music recordings, and has the potential to shape their

artistic qualities substantially.

Part Two provides a framework and a method to develop high-level listen-

ing skills. It will lead the listener to develop listening and sound evaluation

skills and to learn how to communicate objective and meaningful informa-

tion about sound. Important recordings by The Beatles will be examined to

illustrate the sound characteristics being studied.

Part Three focuses on the aesthetics of recording and mixing. This section

will not present prescriptions for production techniques to achieve cer-

tain results; nor will it provide information on selecting and using speciﬁ c

equipment or technologies. It will lead the reader to discovery and creativ-

ity by developing problem solving and creative thinking. It will bring the

reader to gain control of the craft of recording music and shaping sound,

and to use the recording process in an artistic way.

Understanding and Crafting the Mix: The Art of Recording encourages the

reader to think broadly and deeply about the creative, artistic, and technical

processes involved in planning, executing and evaluating a music record-

ing, and it provides the guidance, the language and the training to enable

them to craft quality recordings. The reader is brought to think of a music

recording as a piece of music, rather than a product of technological pro-

cesses.

The goal of

Understanding and Crafting the Mix: The Art of Recording is

to bring the reader to an awareness of the dimensions of recorded sound,

and to an understanding of how the dimensions shape music recordings,

through the development of listening and evaluation skills. It seeks to lead

readers to control the recording process to create quality recordings, and

to ﬁ nd their own unique artistic voice in crafting music recordings.

Part One

Deﬁ ning the Art of Recording:

The Sound Characteristics and

Aesthetic Qualities of Audio Recordings

1 The Elements of Sound and

Audio Recording

Audio recording is the recording of sound. It is the act of capturing the

physical dimensions of sound and then reproducing those dimensions

either immediately or from a storage medium (magnetic, vinyl, electronic,

digital), and thereby returning those dimensions to their physical, acous-

tic state. The process moves from physical sound, through the recording/

reproduction chain, and back to physical sound.

The “art” in recording centers on the artistically sensitive application of the

recording process. The recording process is being used to shape or create

sound as an artistic statement (piece of music), or supporting artistic mate-

rial. To be in control of crafting the artistic product, one must be in control

of the recording process, be in control of the ways in which the recording

process modiﬁ es sound, and be in control of communicating well-deﬁ ned

creative ideas.

These areas of control of the artistic process all closely involve a human

interaction with sound. Inconsistencies between the various states of sound

are present throughout the audio-recording process. Many of these incon-

sistencies are the result of the human factor: the ways in which humans

perceive sound and interpret or formulate its meanings. In order for mate-

rial to be under their control, the artist (audio professional) must under-

stand the substance of their material: sound, in all its inconsistencies.

The States of Sound

In audio recording, sound is encountered in three different states. Each of

these three states directly inﬂ uences the recording process and the cre-

ation (or capturing) of a piece of art. These three states are:

1. Sound as it exists physically (having physical dimensions);

Chapter 1

2. Sound as it exists in human perception (psychoacoustic conception):

sound being perceived by humans after being transformed by the ear

and interpreted by the mind (the perceived parameters of sound being

human perceptions of the physical dimensions); and

Sound as idea: sound as it exists as an aural representation of an

abstract or a tangible concept, as an emotion or feeling, or represent-

ing a physical object or activity (this is how the mind ﬁ nds meaning

from its attention to the perceived parameters of sound); sounds as

meaningful events, capable of communication, provide a medium for

artistic expression; sounds hereby communicate, have meaning.

The audio-recording process ends with sound reproduced over loudspeak-

ers, as sound existing in its physical state, in air. Often the audio-recording

process will begin with sound in this physical state, to be captured by a

microphone.

Humans are directly involved in all facets of the audio-recording process

through listening to sound. They evaluate the audio signal at all stages

while the recording is being made (including the

recordist—the person

making the recording—and all others involved in the industry), and what is

heard by the end listener is the reason for making the recording. Humans

translate the physical dimensions of sound into the perceived parameters

of sound through the listening process (aural perception).

This translation process involves the hearing mechanism functioning on

the physical dimensions of sound, and the transmission of neural signals to

the brain. The process is nonlinear and alters the information; the hearing

mechanism does not produce nerve impulses that are exact replicas of the

applied acoustic energy.

Certain aspects of the distortion caused by the translation process are,

in general, consistent between listeners and between hearings; they are

related to the physical workings of the inner ear or the transfer of the per-

ceived sounds to the mind/brain. Other aspects are not consistent between

listeners and between hearings; they relate to the listener’s unique hearing

characteristics and their experience and intelligence.

The ﬁ nal function occurs at the brain. At a certain area of the cortex, the neu-

ral information is processed, identiﬁ ed, consciously perceived, and stored

in short-term memory; the neural signals are transferred to other centers of

the brain for long-term memory. At this point, the knowledge, experience,

attentiveness, and intelligence of the listener become factors in the under-

standing and perception of sound’s artistic elements (or the meanings or

message of the sound). The individual is not always sensitive or attentive to

the material or to the listening activity, and the individual is not always able

to match the sound to their previous experiences or known circumstances.

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

Figure 1-1

Three

states of sound: in

air, in perception,

as message.

Acoustic Energy Perception Meaning

The physical dimensions (1) are interpreted as perceived parameters of

the sound (2). The perceived parameters of sound (2) provide a resource

of elements that allow for the communication and understanding of the

meaning of sound (and artistic expression) (3).

The audio-recording process communicates ideas, and can express feel-

ings and emotions. Audio might take the forms of music, dialog, motion-

picture action sounds, whale songs, or others. Whatever its form, audio is

sound that has some type of meaning to the listener. The perceived sound

provides a medium of variables that are recognizable and have meaning,

when presented in certain orders or patterns. Sound, as perceived and

understood by the human mind, becomes the resource for creative and

artistic expression. The artist uses the perceived parameters of sound as

the artistic elements of sound, to create and ensure the communication of

meaningful (musical) messages.

The individual states of sound as physical dimensions and as perceived

parameters will be discussed individually, in the next section. The interac-

tion of the perceived parameters of sound will follow the discussion of

the individual parameters. These discussions provide critical information

for understanding the breadth of the “artistic elements of sound” in audio

recording, presented in the next chapter.

Physical Dimensions of Sound

Five physical dimensions of sound are central to the audio-recording pro-

cess. These physical dimensions are: the characteristics of the sound wave-

form as (1)

frequency and (2) amplitude displacements, occurring within

the continuum of (3)

time; the fusion of the many frequency and amplitude

anomalies of the single sound to create a global, complex waveform as (4)

Chapter 1

timbre; and the interaction of the sound source (timbre) and the environ-

ment in which it exists creates alterations to the waveform according to

variables of (5)

space.

Figure 1-2

Dimensions

of the waveform.

Rarefactions Time (Milliseconds)

or Distance

Compression of

Air Molecules

Static

Barometric

Pressure

Amplitude

One Cycle

Frequency is the number of similar, cyclical displacements in the medium,

air, per time unit (measured in cycles of the waveform per second, or Hz).

Each similar compression/rarefaction combination creates a single cycle of

the waveform. Amplitude is the amount of displacement of the medium at

any moment, within each cycle of the waveform (measured as the magni-

tude of displacement in relation to a reference level, or decibels).

Timbre

Timbre is a composite of a multitude of functions of frequency and ampli-

tude displacements; it is the global result of all the amplitude and frequency

components that create the individual sound. Timbre is the overall quality

of a sound. Its primary component parts are the dynamic envelope, spec-

trum, and spectral envelope.

The

dynamic envelope of a sound is the contour of the changes in the over-

all dynamic level of the sound throughout its existence. Dynamic enve-

lopes of individual acoustic instruments and voices vary greatly in content

and contours. The dynamic envelope is often thought of as being divided

into a number of component parts. These component parts may or may

not be present in any individual sound. The widely accepted components

of the dynamic envelope are: attack (time), initial decay (time), initial sus-

tain level, secondary decay (time), primary sustain level, and ﬁ nal decay

(release time).

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

Figure 1-3

Dynamic

envelope.

Dynamic envelope shapes other than those created by the above outline

are common. Many musical instruments have more or fewer parts to their

characteristic dynamic envelope. Further, vocalists and the performers of

many instruments have great control over the sustaining portions of the

envelope, providing internal dynamic changes to sounds. Musical sounds

that do not have some variation of level during the sustain portion of the

envelope are rare; the organ is one such exception.

The

spectrum of a sound is the composite of all of the frequency compo-

nents of the sound. It is comprised of the fundamental frequency, harmon-

ics, and overtones, sometimes including subharmonics and subtones.

The periodic vibration of the waveform produces the sensation of a domi-

nant frequency. The number of periodic vibrations, or cycles of the wave-

form, that repeat its characteristic shape is the

fundamental frequency. The

fundamental frequency is also that frequency at which the sounding body

resonates along its entire length. The fundamental frequency is often the

most prominent frequency in the spectrum, and will often have the great-

est amplitude of any component of the spectrum.

In all sounds except the pure sine wave, frequencies other than the funda-

mental are present in the spectrum. These frequencies are usually higher

than the fundamental frequency. They may or may not be in a whole-num-

ber relationship to the fundamental. Frequency components of the spectrum

that are whole-number multiples of the fundamental are

harmonics; these

frequencies reinforce the prominence of the fundamental frequency (and the

pitched quality of the sound). Those components of the spectrum that are

not proportionally related to the fundamental we will refer to as

overtones.

Time

Initial Attack: A = time 1 = level

Initial Decay: B = time

Initial Sustain C = time 2 = level

Secondary Decay: D = time

Primary Sustain: E = time 3 = level

Final Decay: F = time

Amplitude

Prefix Body

Chapter 1

Traditional musical acoustics studies deﬁ ne overtones as being proportional

to the fundamental, but with a different sequence than harmonics (ﬁ rst over-

tone = second harmonic, etc.); this traditional deﬁ nition is herein replaced by

a differentiation between

partials that are proportional to the fundamental

(harmonics) and those that are not (overtones). This distinction will prove

important in the evaluation of timbre and sound quality in later chapters.

All of the individual components of the spectrum are partials. Partials (over-

tones and harmonics) can exist below the fundamental frequency as well as

above; they are accordingly referred to as subharmonics and subtones.

Figure 1-4

Harmonic

Series

Harmonic = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Frequency = 55Hz 110 165 220 275 330 385 440 495 550Hz

Pitch = A

(flat)

605

(sharp)

660

715

(sharp)

770

(flat)

825

(flat)

880

935 Hz

(sharp)

Listen . . .

to tracks 1 and 2

for the harmonic series played in

individual frequencies and pitch-

es, and as a chord.

For each individual instrument or voice, certain ranges of frequencies

within the spectrum will be emphasized consistently, no matter the fun-

damental frequency. Instruments and voices will have resonances that

will strengthen those spectral components that fall within these deﬁ nable

frequency ranges. These areas are called

formants, formant regions, or

resonance peaks. Formants remain largely constant, and modify the same

frequency areas no matter the fundamental frequency. Spectral modiﬁ ca-

tions will be present in all occurrences of the sound source with harmonics

or overtones in the formant regions. Formants can appear as increases in

the amplitudes of partials that appear in certain frequency bands, or as

spectral components in themselves (such as noise transients caused by a

hammer striking a string). They can also be associated with resonances of

the particular mechanism that produced the source sound. Formants are

largely responsible for shaping the characteristic sounds of speciﬁ c instru-

ments; they allow us to differentiate between the instruments of different

manufacturers, or even to tell the difference between two instruments of

the same model and maker.

A sound’s spectrum is composed primarily of partials

that create a characteristic pattern, which is recognizable

as being characteristic of a particular instrument or voice.

This pattern of spectrum will transpose (change level but

maintain the same distances between frequencies/partials)

with every new fundamental frequency of the same sound

source and remain mostly unchanged. This consistent pat-

tern will form a similar timbre at different pitch levels. For-

mants establish frequency areas that will be emphasized

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

for a particular instrument or voice. These areas will not change with varied

fundamental frequency, as they are ﬁ xed characteristics (such as resonant

frequencies) of the device that created the sound. Formants may also take

the form of spectral information that is present in all sounds produced by

the instrument or voice.

Figure 1-5

Format

regions of two pitches

from a hypothetical

instrument. Vertical

lines represent the

partials of the two

pitches, placed at spe-

ciﬁ c frequencies and

at speciﬁ c amplitudes.

The frequencies that comprise the spectrum (fundamental frequency, har-

monics, overtones, subharmonics and subtones) all have different ampli-

tudes that change independently over the sound’s duration. Thus, each par-

tial has a different dynamic envelope. Altogether these dynamic envelopes

of all the partials make up the

spectral envelope. The spectral envelope is

the composite of each individual dynamic level and dynamic envelope of

all of the components (partials) of the spectrum.

The component parts of timbre (dynamic envelope, spectrum, and spectral

envelope) display strikingly different characteristics during different parts

of the duration of the sound. The duration of a sound is commonly divided

into two time units: the

preﬁ x or onset, and the body. The initial portion of

the sound is the preﬁ x or onset; it is markedly different from the remainder

of the sound, the body. The time length of the preﬁ x is usually determined

by the way a sound is initiated, and is often the same time unit as the initial

attack. The actual time increment of the preﬁ x may be anywhere from a few

microseconds to 20–30 ms.

Frequency (Hz)

Resonance Areas

(frequency band)

Amplitude

area of noise burst

during sounds’ onsets

Pitches

250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000

Amplitude

250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000

(220Hz)

(330Hz)

Frequency (Hz)

Chapter 1

Figure 1-6

Spectral

envelope.

The preﬁ x is deﬁ ned as the initial portion of the sound that has markedly

different characteristics of dynamic envelope, spectrum, and spectral enve-

lope than the remainder of the sound. The body of the sound is usually

much longer in duration than the preﬁ x. (See Figure 1-3.)

Space

The interaction of the sound source (timbre) and the environment, in which

it is produced, will create alterations to sound. These changes to the sound

source’s sound quality are created by the acoustic space. The nature of

these alterations is directly related to (1) the characteristics of the acoustic

space in which the sound is produced and (2) the location of the sound

source within the environment.

Space-related sound measurements must be performed at a speciﬁ c physi-

cal location. The measurements are calculated from the point in space where

a receptor (perhaps a microphone or a listener) will capture the composite

sound (the sound source within the acoustic space). The location of the

listener (or other receptor) becomes a reference in the measurement of the

acoustic properties of space.

The aspects of space that inﬂ uence sound in audio recording are: (1) the

distance of the sound source to the listener, (2) the angle of the sound

source to the listener, (3) the geometry of the environment in which the

sound source is sounding, and (4) the

location of the sound source within

the host environment.

Time in Seconds

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

1k —

2k —

3k —

4k —

5k —

Frequency

in Hertz

Relative

Amplitude

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

Figure 1-7

Paths of

reﬂ ected sound within

an enclosed space.

The environment in which the sound source is sounding is often referred

to as the host environment. Within the host environment, sound will travel

on a direct path to the listener (as

direct sound) and sound will bounce off

reﬂ ective surfaces before arriving at the listener (as reﬂ ected sound).

Reverberant sound is a composite of many reﬂ ections of the sound arriving

at the listener (or microphone) in close succession. The many reﬂ ections

that comprise the reverberant sound are spaced so closely that the indi-

vidual reﬂ ections cannot be measured; these many reﬂ ections are there-

fore considered as a single entity. As time progresses, these closely spaced

reﬂ ections become more closely spaced and of diminishing amplitude,

until they are no longer of consequence.

Reverberation time (often referred

to as RT60) is the length of time required for the reﬂ ections to reach an

amplitude level of 60 dB lower than that of the original sound source.

Figure 1-8

Reﬂ ected

sound.

Direct Sound

Walls Ceiling

Direct Sound

Floor

Reverberant Sound

Early Sound Field

Early Reflections

Direct

Sound

Impulse

Amplitude (dB)

-60

Arrival

Time Gap

Time

Chapter 1

Early reﬂ ections are those reﬂ ections that arrive at the ear or microphone

within around 50 ms of the direct sound. As a collection, the reﬂ ections

that arrive at the receptor within the ﬁ rst 50 ms after the arrival of the direct

sound comprise the

early sound ﬁ eld.

Varying the

distance of the sound source from the receptor (ear or micro-

phone) alters the sound at the receptor. The sound at the receptor will be

a composite of the direct sound and the reﬂ ected sounds (reverberation

and early sound ﬁ eld). The composite sound at the receptor is affected by

the distance of the sound source from the receptor in two ways: (1) low-

amplitude portions of the sound’s spectrum (usually high frequencies)

are lost with increasing distance of the sound source to the receptor and

(2) reﬂ ected sound increases in prominence to the direct sound as distance

increases. Figure 1-9 illustrates the loss of

timbral detail (the subtle aspects

and changes in the content of a sound’s timbre, also called deﬁ nition of

timbre

) with increasing distance as well as the change of the proportion of

direct to reﬂ ected sound.

The characteristic changes to the composite sound, caused by the geometry

of the host environment and by the location of the sound source within the

host environment, are also inﬂ uenced by the changes caused by distance.

Figure 1-9

Changes in

sound with distance.

Direct Sound

Amplitude

Wave Form

Timbral Detail

10 Meters

100 Meters

Distance

Direct to

Reflected Sound

Time

These two dimensions of the relationship of the sound source to its acous-

tic space may alter the composite sound in four additional ways: (1) tim-

bre differences between the direct and reﬂ ected sounds; (2) time differ-

ences between the arrivals of the direct sound, the initial reﬂ ections, and

the reverberant sound; (3) spacing in time of the early reﬂ ections; and (4)

amplitude differences between direct and reﬂ ected sounds.

The geometry of the host environment greatly inﬂ uences the content of

the composite sound. The dimensions and volume of the space, the angles

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

of boundaries (walls, ﬂ oors, ceilings), materials of construction, and the

presence of openings (such as windows) and large objects within the space

will all alter the composite sound. Host environments cover the gamut of

all the physical spaces and open areas that create our reality (from a small

room to a large concert hall, from the corridor of a city street to an open

ﬁ eld, etc.).

Unique sequences of reﬂ ected sound are created when a sound is pro-

duced within an environment, and sequences are shaped by the location

of the sound source within the host environment. These unique sequences

contain patterns of reﬂ ections that are deﬁ ned by the spacing of reﬂ ections

over time and the amplitudes of the reﬂ ections. A “rhythm of reﬂ ections”

exists and will form the basis of important observations in later chapters.

By altering the early time ﬁ eld and reverberant sound, the location of the

sound source within the host environment may cause signiﬁ cant altera-

tions to the composite sound at the receptor (ear or microphone).

Figure 1-10

Patterns

of reﬂ ections.

The location of the sound source within the host environment may strongly

inﬂ uence the composite sound. The amount of inﬂ uence will be directly

related to the proximity of the sound source to the walls, ceiling, ﬂ oor,

openings (such as windows and doors), and large objects reﬂ ecting sound

within the host environment.

Direct

Sound

Amplitude

Time

Pattern 1

Pattern 2

Chapter 1

In audio production, the spatial properties of host environ-

ments and the location of a sound source within the envi-

ronment can be generated artiﬁ cially. It is common to use

reverberation units and delays to create environmental

cues. These cues may be very realistic representations of

natural spaces or they may be environmental characteris-

tics that cannot occur in our physical reality.

Figure 1-11

Horizontal

and vertical planes.

The angle of the sound source to the receptor is an important inﬂ uence in

audio recording. The sound source may be at any angle from the recep-

tor (listener or omnidirectional microphone) and be detected. The sound

source may be present at any location in the sphere surrounding the recep-

tor. The location is calculated with reference to the 360° vertical and hori-

zontal planes that encompass the receptor.

The angle of the sound source to the receptor may be calculated against

the horizontal plane (parallel to the ﬂ oor), the vertical plane (height), or

by combining the two (in a way very similar to positioning locations on a

globe). Deﬁ ning elevation (vertical plane) and direction (left, right, front,

rear) can determine the precise location of the sound source within our

three-dimensional space by precise increments of degrees.

Listen . . .

to track 34-36

for a realization of Figure 1-10,

where the rhythms of these pat-

terns of reﬂ ections are sounded

separately and together.

Vertical Plane

Rear

Left

Horizontal

Plane

Front

Right

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

Figure 1-12

Deﬁ ning

sound source angle

from a microphone.

Angles of source locations on the horizontal plane are captured or gener-

ated in audio recording to provide stereo and surround sound. To date, the

vertical plane has received little attention in audio because of playback for-

mat difﬁ culties. Recent surround sound advances have produced formats

that provide these cues in ways that can strikingly enhance programs.

Perceived Parameters of Sound

The ﬁ ve physical dimensions of sound translate into respective perceived

parameters of sound. Sound as it exists in human perception is quite dif-

ferent from sound in its physical state, in air. Our perception of sound is a

result of the physical dimensions being transformed by the ear and inter-

preted by the mind. The perceived parameters of sound are our percep-

tions of the physical dimensions of sound.

This translation process from the physical dimensions to the perceived

parameters is nonlinear, and differs between individuals. The hearing

mechanism does not directly transfer acoustic energy into equivalent nerve

impulses. The human ear is not equally sensitive in all frequency ranges, nor

is it equally sensitive to sound at all amplitude levels. This nonlinearity in

transferring acoustic energy to neural impulses causes sound to be in a dif-

ferent state in our perception than what exists in air. Thus, the physical states

of sound captured by recording equipment will be heard by the recordist in

ways that may be unexpected, without knowledge of these differences.

Complicating this further, there is no reason to believe any two people actu-

ally hear the characteristics of sound in precisely the same way. If it were

possible for all conditions for two sounds to be identically sent to two listen-

ers, the two people likely would hear slightly (or strikingly) different charac-

teristics. We only need notice the different ear shapes around us to recog-

nize no two people will pick up acoustic energy in precisely the same way.

Horizontal

Plane

90º

0º

-90º

180º

Vertical Plane

90º

60º

30º

0º

-30º

-60º

-90º

-120º

-150º

-180º

150º

120º

Vertical Plane

from Side

0º

30º

60º

90º

120º

150º

180º

-150º

-120º

-90º

-60º

-30º

Horizontal Plane

from Above

Chapter 1

Table 1-1

The Physical Dimensions and the Perceived Parameters of Sound

Physical Dimensions Perceived Parameters

Frequency Pitch

Amplitude Loudness

Time Duration

Timbre (physical components) Timbre (perceived overall quality)

Space (physical components) Space (perceived characteristics)

Pitch

Pitch is the perception of the frequency of the waveform. It has been deﬁ ned

as the perceived position of a sound on a scale from low to high, and as an

attribute of hearing sensation by which sounds may be ordered on a musi-

cal scale. Pitch is a subjective attribute and cannot be measured. We assign

values to pitches, to allow us to understand their relationships to other

pitches. We organize these values into tuning and harmonic systems, which

give rise to melody and harmony. The creation of these systems may have

been different (and are therefore subjective), and indeed differ markedly

between cultures and have evolved substantially over the centuries.

A clear pitch sensation is perceived when a sound wave regularly repeats

a wave shape of very similar characteristics. The number of periodic repeti-

tions of the shape per second allows a fundamental frequency to be per-

ceived, and an unambiguous pitch sensation results. This is further solidi-

ﬁ ed by the presence of frequency components that are integer multiples of

the fundamental (harmonics). Thus, the physical dimensions of sound are

transformed into our perception of pitch.

The frequency area most widely accepted as encompassing the hearing

range of the normal human spans the boundaries of 20–20,000 Hz (20 kHz),

though humans are sensitive to (if not actually able to hear) frequencies

well below and above this range.

Most humans cannot identify speciﬁ c pitch levels. Some people have been

blessed with, or have developed, the ability to recognize speciﬁ c pitch lev-

els (in relation to speciﬁ c tuning systems). These people are said to have

“absolute” or “perfect pitch.” The ability to accurately recognize pitch levels

is not common even among well-trained musicians.

It is commonly within human ability, however, to determine the relative

placement of a pitch within the hearing range. A

tion of the range. It is entirely possible to determine, within certain consis-

tent limits of accuracy, the relative register of a perceived pitch level. This

skill can be developed and accuracy improved signiﬁ cantly.

We are able to consistently perform the estimation of the approximate

level of a pitch, associating pitch level with register. With practice, this

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

consistency can be accurate to within a minor third (within three semi-

tones). This skill in the “estimation of pitch level” will be an important part

of the method for evaluating sound presented later.

Humans perceive pitch most accurately as relationships. We perceive pitch

as the relationship between two or more soundings of the same or related

sound sources. We do not perceive pitch as identiﬁ able, discrete incre-

ments; we do not listen to pitch material to deﬁ ne the letter names (incre-

ments) of pitches. Instead, we calculate the distance (or interval) between

pitches by gauging the distance between the perceived levels of the two

(or more) pitches.

The interval between pitches becomes the basis for all judgments that

deﬁ ne and relate the sounds. Thus, melody is the perception of succes-

sively sounded pitches (creating linear intervals), and chords are the per-

ceptions of simultaneously sounded pitches (creating harmonic intervals).

We often perceive pitch in relation to a reference level (one predominating

pitch that acts as the key or pitch-center of a piece of music), or to a system

of organization to which pitches can be related (a tonal system, such as

major or minor).

Our ability to recognize the interval between two pitches is not consistent

throughout the hearing range. Most listeners have the ability to accurately

judge the size of the semitone (or minor second, the smallest musical inter-

val of the equal-tempered system) within the range of 60 Hz and 4 kHz. As

pitch material moves below 60 Hz, a typical listener will have increased

difﬁ culty in accurately judging interval size. As pitch material moves above

4 kHz, the typical listener will also experience increased difﬁ culty in accu-

rately judging interval size.

The smallest interval humans can accurately perceive is not consistent

throughout our hearing range. It changes with the register of the two pitch-

es creating the interval. The size of the minimum audible interval varies

from about 1/12 of a semitone between 1–4 kHz, to about half of a semitone

(a quarter-tone) at approximately 65 Hz. These ﬁ gures are dependent upon

optimum duration and loudness levels of the pitches; sudden changes of

pitch level are up to 30 times easier to detect than gradual changes. It is

possible for humans to distinguish up to 1,500 individual pitch levels by

spacing out the appropriate minimum-audible intervals, throughout the

hearing range.

With all factors being equal, the perception of harmonic intervals (simulta-

neously sounding pitches) is more accurate than the perception of melodic

intervals (successively sounded pitches). Up to approximately 500 Hz, melod-

ic and harmonic intervals are perceived equally well. Above 1 kHz, humans

begin to be able to judge harmonic intervals with greater accuracy than

melodic intervals; above 3,500 Hz, this difference becomes pronounced.

Chapter 1

Loudness

Loudness is the perception of the overall excursion of the waveform (ampli-

tude). Amplitude can be physically measured as a sound pressure level. In

perception, loudness level cannot be accurately perceived in discrete levels.

Loudness is referred to in relative values, not as having separate and dis-

tinct levels of value. Traditionally, loudness levels have been described by

analogy (“louder than,” “softer than,” etc.) or by relative values (“soft,”

“medium loud,” “very soft,” “extremely loud,” etc.). Humans compare loud-

ness levels and conceive loudness levels as being “louder than” or “softer

than” the previous, succeeding, or remembered loudness level(s).

A great difference exists between loudness as perceived by humans and

the physical amplitude of the sound wave. This difference can be quite

large at certain frequencies. In order for a sound of 20 Hz to be audible, a

sound pressure level of 75 dB must be present. At 1 kHz, the human ear will

perceive the sound with a minute amount of sound pressure level, and at

10 kHz a sound pressure level of approximately 18 dB is required for audi-

bility. The unit

phon is the measure of perceived loudness established at

1 kHz, based on subjective listening tests.

Figure 1-13

Equal

loudness contour.

120

100

130

120

110

100

Normal Minimum

Audible Range

20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 15,000

10,000

Sound Pressure Level (dB)

Phons

Frequency (Hz)

The nonlinear frequency response of the ear and the fatigue of the hear-

ing mechanism over time contribute to further inaccuracies of the human

perception of loudness in three ways:

1. With sounds of long durations and steady loudness level, loudness

will be perceived as increasing with the progression of the sound until

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

approximately 0.2 seconds of duration. At that time, the gradual fatigue

of the ear (and possibly shifts of attention by the listener) will cause

perceived loudness to diminish.

2. As loudness level of the sound is increased, the ear requires increas-

ingly more time between soundings before it can accurately judge the

loudness level of a succeeding sound. We are unable to accurately judge

the individual loudness levels of a sequence of high-intensity sounds as

accurately as we can judge the individual loudness levels of mid- to low-

intensity sounds; the inner ear itself requires time to reestablish a state

of normalcy, from which it can accurately track the next sound level.

3. As a sound of long duration is being sustained, its perceived loudness

level will gradually diminish. This is especially true for sounds with high

sound pressure levels. The ear gradually becomes desensitized to the

loudness level. The physical masking (covering) of softer sounds and

an inability to accurately judge changes in loudness levels will result

from the fatigue. When the listener is hearing under listening fatigue,

slight changes of loudness may be judged as being large. Listening

fatigue may desensitize the ear’s ability to detect new sounds at fre-

quencies within the frequency band (frequency area) where the high

sound-pressure level was formerly present.

Duration

Humans perceive time as duration. Sound durations are not perceived indi-

vidually. We cannot accurately judge time increments without a reference

time unit. Regular reference time units are found in musical contexts and

rarely in other types of human experiences. Even the human heartbeat is

rarely consistent enough to act as a reliable reference. The underlying met-

ric pulse of a piece of music does, however, allow for accurate duration

perception. This accuracy cannot be achieved in any other context of the

human experience.

In music, the listener remembers the relative duration values of successive

sounds, in a similar process to that of perceiving melodic pitch intervals.

These successive durations create musical rhythm. The listener calculates

the length of time between when a sound starts and when it ends, in rela-

tion to what precedes it, what follows it, what occurs simultaneously with

it, and what is known (what has been remembered). Instead of calculating

an interval of pitch, the listener proceeds to calculate a span of time, as a

durational value.

Metric Grid

A metric grid, or an underlying pulse, is quickly established in the percep-

tion of the listener, as a piece of music unfolds. This creates a reference

pulse against which all durations can be deﬁ ned. The listener is thereby

Chapter 1

able to make rhythmic judgments in a precise and consistent manner. The

equal divisions of the grid allow the listener to compare all durations and

to calculate the pulse-related values of the perceived sounds. Durations are

calculated as being in proportion to the underlying pulse: at the pulse, half

pulses, quarter of the pulse, double the pulse, etc.

In the absence of the metric grid, durational values cannot be accurately

perceived as proportional ratios. Humans will not be able to perceive slight

differences in duration when a metric grid is not established.

Figure 1-14

Metric

grid.

Musical

Notation

Proportion

Sound Attacks

/4 1

/2 2

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Pulses

(Regularly spaced out at specific metronome marking)

The listener is only able to establish a metric grid within certain limits.

Humans will be able to accurately utilize the metric grid between 30 to 260

pulses per minute. Beyond these boundaries, the pulse is not perceived as

the primary underlying division of the grid. We will instead replace the pulse

with a duration of either one-half or twice the value, or the listener might

become confused and unable to make sense of the rhythmic activity.

The metric grid is the dominant factor in our perception of tempo, as well

as musical rhythm. In most instances, the metric grid itself represents the

steady pulsation of the tempo of a piece of music.

Time

The listener’s time perception plays a peripheral role in the perception

of rhythm. Time perception is signiﬁ cant to the perception of the global

qualities of a piece of music, and to the estimation of durations when a

metric grid is not present in the music. The global qualities of aesthetic,

communicative, and extra-musical ideas within a piece of music are largely

dependent on the living experience of music—on the passage of musical

materials across the listener’s time perception of their existence.

Time perception is distinctly different from duration perception. The human

mind makes judgments of elapsed time based on the perceived length of

the present. The length of time humans perceive to be “the present” is

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

normally two to three seconds, but might be extended to as much as ﬁ ve

seconds and beyond.

The “present” is our window of consciousness, through which we perceive

the world and listen to sound. We are at once experiencing the moment of

our existence, evaluating the immediate past of what has just happened

and anticipating the future (projecting what will follow the present moment,

given our experiences of the recently passed moments, and our knowledge

of previous, similar events).

Human time judgments are imprecise. The speed at which events take place

and the amount of information that takes place within the “present” greatly

inﬂ uences time judgments. The amount of time perceived to have passed

will change to conform to the number of events experienced within the

present; the listener will estimate the amount of time passed in relation to

the number of experiences during the present, and make time judgments

accordingly.

Time judgments are greatly inﬂ uenced by the individual listener’s attentive-

ness and interest in what is being heard. If the material stimulates thought

within the listener, the event will seem shorter; if the listener ﬁ nds the listen-

ing activity desirable in some way, the experience will seem to occupy less

time than would an undesirable experience of the same (or even shorter)

length. Expectations, boredom, interest, contemplation, and even pleasure

caused by music can alter the listener’s sense of elapsed time.

The time length of a piece of music (or any time-based art form, such as a

motion picture) is separate and distinct from clock time. A lifetime can pass

in a moment, through the experience of a work of art. A brief moment of

sound might elevate the listener to extend the experience to an inﬁ nity of

existence.

Timbre in Perception

The overall quality of a sound, its timbre, is the perception of the mixture

of all of the physical aspects that comprise a sound. Timbre is the global

form, or the overall character of a sound, which we can recognize as being

unique.

This overall form (timbre) is perceived as the states and interactions of its

component parts. The physical dimensions of sound, discussed previously,

are perceived as dynamic envelope, spectral content, and spectral enve-

lope (perceived values, not physical values). The perceived dimensions are

interpreted and shape an overall quality, or conception, of the sound.

Humans remember timbres as entities, as single objects having an overall

quality (that is comprised of many unique characteristics), and sometimes

as having meaning in themselves (as a timbre can bring with it associa-

tions in the mind of the listener). We recognize the sounds of hundreds

Chapter 1

of human voices because we remember their timbres. We remember the

timbres of a multitude of sounds from our living experiences. We remem-

ber the timbres of many musical instruments and their different timbres as

they are performed in many different ways.

The global quality that is timbre allows us to remember and recognize spe-

ciﬁ c timbres as unique and identiﬁ able objects.

Humans have the ability to recognize and remember a large number of tim-

bres. Further, listeners have the ability to scan timbres and relate unknown

sounds to sounds stored in the listener’s long-term memory. The listener

is then able to make meaningful comparisons of the states and values of

the component parts of those timbres. These skills will serve as meaningful

points of departure for the method for evaluating timbre in Part Two.

Sufﬁ cient time is required for the mind to process the many characteristics

of a sound in order to recognize and understand its overall image. The time

required to perceive the component parts of timbre varies signiﬁ cantly with

the complexity of the sound and the listener’s previous knowledge of the

sound. For rather simple sounds, the time required for accurate perception

is approximately 60 ms. As the complexity of the sound is increased, the

time needed to perceive the sound’s component parts will also increase. All

sounds lasting less than 50 ms are perceived as noise-like, since a speciﬁ c

timbre cannot be identiﬁ ed at that short a duration; exceptions occur when

the listener is well acquainted with the sound, and the timbre can be recog-

nized from this small bit of information.

The partials of the timbre’s spectrum fuse to create the impression of a

single sound. Although many frequencies are present, the tendency of our

perception is to combine them into one overall texture. We fuse partials that

are harmonically related to the fundamental frequency, as well as overtones

that are distantly related to the fundamental, into a single impression.

It is especially important for the recording professional to note the follow-

ing related to the fusing of timbres:

• Fusion can also occur between two separate timbres (two individual

sound sources) if the proper conditions are present.

• Timbres that are attacked simultaneously, or are of a close harmonic

relationship to each other, are most likely to fuse into the perception of

a single sound.

• The more complex the individual sound, the more likely that fusion will

not occur.

• When the listener recognizes one of the timbres, fusion will be far less

likely to occur.

• Related to recognizing timbre, synthesized sounds are more likely to

fuse with other sounds than are known sounds of an acoustic origin.

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

Spatial Characteristics

The perception of the spatial characteristics of sound is the impression of

the physical location of a sound source in an environment, together with the

modiﬁ cations the environment itself places on the sound source’s timbre.

The perception of

space in audio recording (reproduction) is not the same

as the perception of space of an acoustic source in a physical environment.

In an acoustic space, listeners perceive the location of sound in relation

to the three-dimensional space around them: distance, vertical plane, and

horizontal plane. Sound is perceived at any possible angle from the listen-

er, and sound is perceived at a distance from the listener; both of these per-

ceptions involve an evaluation of the characteristics of the sound source’s

host environment.

In audio recording, illusions of space are created. Sound sources are given

spatial characteristics through the recording process and/or through signal

processing. This spatial information is intended to complement the timbre

of the music and/or sound source. The spatial characteristics may simulate

particular known, physical environments or activities, or be intended to

provide spatial cues that have no relation to our reality. In theory, all of the

interactions of the sound with its host environment are captured with, or

can be simulated and applied to, the sound source; upon playback through

two or more loudspeakers, these spatial cues are reproduced.

Playback Environment

Recordings and their sound sources (combined with their spatial charac-

teristics) are heard through two (or more) loudspeakers. The loudspeakers

themselves are placed in, and interact with, a playback environment—such

as a living room or automobile. The playback environment is nearly always

quite unrelated to the spaces on the recording. Thus, the listener ultimate-

ly perceives spatial characteristics applied to the sound source after they

have been altered by:

• the characteristics of loudspeakers,

• the interaction of the loudspeakers and the environment (caused by

placement of loudspeakers within the playback environment), and

• the playback environment itself.

Listeners perceive the reproduced spatial characteristics of the sound

source within the three-dimensional space of their listening environment

(headphone monitoring is not a workable solution, as will be discussed

later).

To accurately perceive the spatial information of an audio recording, the

listening environment must be acoustically neutral, and the listener must

be carefully positioned within the environment and in relation to the loud-

Chapter 1

speakers. The listening environment (including the loudspeakers) should

not place additional spatial cues onto the reproduced sound. These condi-

tions are goals that are never fully met in actual monitoring conditions.

Therefore one must be aware of how the playback system and the listening

room are altering the recording and its sound sources.

Perceived Spatial Relationships and Current Sound Reproduction

We perceive spatial relationships in three primary ways:

1. as the location of the sound source being at an angle to the listener

(above, below, behind, to the left, to the right, in front, etc.),

2. as the location of the sound source being at a distance from the

listener,

3. as an impression of the type, size, and acoustic properties of the host

environment.

These perceptions are transferred into the recording medium, to provide a

realistic illusion of space, with one major exception. The angular location is

severely restricted in audio reproduction, as compared to human percep-

tual abilities. Currently used audio playback formats can only accurately

and consistently reproduce localization cues on the horizontal plane, and

then only slightly beyond the loudspeaker array in stereo recordings. The

three-dimensional space of our reality is simulated (with dubious accuracy)

in the two dimensions of audio recording.

Much research and development is taking place attempting to extend the

localization of sound sources to behind the listener and to the vertical plane,

as well as to provide a more realistic reproduction of distance and environ-

mental cues. Signiﬁ cant advances are being made. Surround sound is now

widely accepted and provides reproduction around the listener that can be

mostly stable and accurate. Control of sound localization on the vertical

plane and a more complete simulation of environmental characteristics are

not, however, presently feasible, though the technology of the future will

likely address these areas as well.

The following discussions of the perception of the spatial dimensions of

reproduced sound refer to common two-channel stereo and to surround-

sound systems. These concepts will transfer to other systems such as bin-

aural recordings, holophonics, and others, but with different boundaries of

the limits of perception inherent with each particular format.

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

Figure 1-15

Area of

sound localization in

two-channel audio

playback.

Left

Loudspeaker

60º 60º

15º15º

Right

Loudspeaker

Localization of Direction

Our ability to localize sounds is one of the survival mechanisms we have

retained from our ancient past. This ability has been developed through-

out our evolution; we have learned to perceive the direction of even those

sounds that our hearing mechanism has difﬁ culty processing.

Humans use differences in the same sound wave appearing at the two ears

for the accurate

localization of direction. Interaural time differences (ITD)

are the result of the sound arriving at each ear at a different time. A sound

that is not precisely in front or in back of the listener will arrive at the ear

closest to the source before it reaches the furthest ear. These time differ-

ences are sometimes referred to as phase differences. The sounds arriving

at each ear are almost identical during the initial moments of the sound,

except the sound at each ear is at a different point in the waveform’s cycle

(and might contain minute spectral differences).

Interaural amplitude differences (IAD) work in conjunction with ITD in the

localization of the direction of the sound source. IAD are also referred to

as interaural spectral differences. IAD is the result of sound pressure level

differences at high frequencies present at the two ears. The head of the

listener, which blocks certain frequencies from the furthest ear (when the

sound is not centered), causes the interaural spectral differences. This

occurrence has been termed the “shadow effect.” Interaural amplitude dif-

ferences (IAD) will at times consist solely of amplitude differences between

the two ears, with the spectral content of the waveform being the same at

both ears.

Chapter 1

The sound wave is almost always different at each ear. The differences

between the sound waves may be time/phase-related, amplitude/spec-

trum-related, and/or spectrum differences. These differences in the wave-

forms are essential to the perception of the direction of the sound source.

In addition, these same cues play a major role in perceiving the character-

istics of host environments.

Up to approximately 800 Hz, humans rely on ITD for localization cues.

Phase differences are utilized for localization perception up to about 800

Hz, as amplitude appears to be the same at both ears.

Figure 1-16

Frequency

ranges of localization

cues.

Frequency (Hz)

Increasingly Poor Localization

Generally

Poor

Localization

40 80 160 320 640 1288 2560 5120 10240 20k

2k 4k800500

IAD

Interaural Time Differences

Between 800 Hz and about 2 kHz both phase and amplitude differences are

present between the two ears. IAD and ITD are both used for the perception

of direction in this frequency range, with amplitude differences becoming

signiﬁ cant around 1,250 Hz.

In general, time/phase differences seem to dominate the perception of

direction up to about 4 kHz. Although IAD are present, ITD dominates the

perception of direction between 2 kHz and 4 kHz. Humans have poor local-

ization ability for sounds in this frequency band.

Above 4 kHz, interaural amplitude differences (IAD) are the cues that deter-

mine the perception of location. Localization ability improves at 4 kHz and

is quite accurate throughout the upper registers of our hearing range.

Recent studies have revealed the human body also generates physical cues

for localization. The chest, head, shoulders, and outer ears all affect sounds

of various wavelengths in different ways. Our body parts’ different sizes

and their different angles to the hearing canal create a very complex source

of reﬂ ected and diffracted sound waves. These waves all lead to important

interaural spectrum differences between the two ears. These differences

are created by a comb-ﬁ lter effect, comprised of minute cancellations and

reinforcements of frequencies. The brain processes these subtle differenc-

es to aid in identifying a sound source’s direction.

As we have seen, humans do not perceive direction accurately at all fre-

quencies. Below approximately 500 Hz, our perception of the angle of the

sound source becomes increasingly inaccurate, to the point where sounds

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

seem to have no apparent focused location. An area exists around 3 kHz

where localization is also poor; wavelength similarities between the dis-

tance between the two ears and those of the frequencies around 3 kHz

cause interaural time/phase differences to be unstable and unreliable.

Humans have a well-reﬁ ned ability to localize sounds in the approximate

frequency areas: 500 Hz–2 kHz, and 4 kHz to upper threshold of hearing

(whatever that might be). Within these areas, the minimum discernible

angle is approximately one to two degrees, with less accuracy at the sides

and back than in the front. Sounds that have fundamental frequencies out-

side of these frequency areas, but that have considerable spectral content

within these bands, will also be localized quite accurately.

Interaural spectral differences occur throughout the frequency spectrum.

While they may be subtle, it appears they are important for the localiza-

tion of objects in frequency ranges where IAD and ITD are ineffective. The

makeup of these interaural spectral differences will inherently be unique to

individuals, as (obviously) no two people are the same size and shape, and

no two outer ears are alike.

The outer ear is called the pinna. This part of our anatomy (an elaborately

shaped piece of cartilage) plays several important roles in our perception

of direction. The pinna gathers sound and funnels it into the ear canal. As

the ridges of the outer ear reﬂ ect sound into the ear, the ridges introduce

small time delays between their reﬂ ections and the direct sound that travels

directly to the ear canal. These small time delays vary according to sound-

source location, and are important components of the interaural spectral

differences described above. The pinna and the delays it generates aid us

in differentiating between sounds arriving from the front and those arriving

from the rear.

Resonances also appear to be excited in the outer ear. These also alter

the frequency response of the sound source in predictable ways that vary

between individuals. The brain learns these patterns of spectral changes to

assist in localization. Pinna cues play signiﬁ cant roles in direction percep-

tion even though each individual has a unique ear-shape, and the resultant

spectrum changes are equally unique. Location cues based on spectrum

are thus not universal, but unique to the individual and are learned.

Pinnae serve a critical function in front to back localization. When sound

arrives at the head from the rear, ridge reﬂ ections are not generated. The

pinna actually blocks the direct sound from reaching the hearing canal and

its ridges when sounds are generated beyond 130° from the front center.

The pinna allows us to perceive the sound source as being generated to

our rear because of the absence of spectral differences.

It is interesting to note, our distance and location judgments are not as

accurate to the sides and the rear. The absence of this spectral information

generated and collected by the outer ear may well play a role.

Chapter 1

We actually move our heads involuntarily to assist in locating sounds—

especially those sounds that are not in front. In moving our heads to remove

location confusion, we bring the source into our front listening ﬁ eld and

thus reintroduce the IAD, ITD and spectral differences of the pinnae. We

also instinctively seek to bring the source into visual view, which elimi-

nates all ambiguity for acoustic sources—but not for phantom images.

Front-back hearing is only partially understood. Little relevant research in

spatial perception of sounds arriving from the rear and the sides is available.

Certainly more will need to be accomplished before we are able to more

thoroughly understand this area. It is increasingly important, however, that

we understand how we perceive sound arrival from the rear and the sides,

and the different qualities of those sounds, if we are to fully understand

and control the differences between surround sound and stereo.

Distance Perception

Distance perception has not been studied thoroughly. The following infor-

mation is well documented, and it is likely that numerous subtleties will be

discovered in the future.

Two impressions lead to the perception of the distance of a sound source

from the listener: (1) the ratio of the amount of direct sound to reverberant

sound, and (2) the primary determinant, the loss of low-amplitude (usually

high-frequency) partials from the sound’s spectrum with increasing dis-

tance (

deﬁ nition of timbre or timbral detail). Both of these functions rely on

the listener’s knowledge of the sound’s timbre for accurate perception of

distance-location. While sound pressure decreases with distance, loudness

itself does not factor into distance-location perception.

Low-energy spectral information is lost with the compressions and rar-

efactions of the waveform over distance. Some information is simply

absorbed by the atmosphere due to air friction. This leads to the listener’s

determination of the level of timbral detail (deﬁ nition of timbre) that is the

major factor in distance perception.

Some timbre-related distance information results from waveform travel

and the speed of sound. As high frequencies travel slightly faster than low

frequencies, the spectrum of the sound is altered with increasing distance.

The partials of complex sounds will become increasingly out of phase with

the fundamental frequency and between themselves, the longer the propa-

gation of the sound.

As the source moves from the listener, the percentage of direct sound

decreases while the percentage of reﬂ ected sound increases. This pertains

to enclosed spaces only. This ratio of direct to reﬂ ected sound will play a

signiﬁ cant role in distance perception when the reverberant energy begins

to mask timbral detail. It will also play a more signiﬁ cant role as timbral

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

detail becomes more and more diminished, or when the sound source is

unknown.

The listener must know the timbre of a sound in order to recognize miss-

ing timbral detail. If the sound is unknown or not recognized, the listener

cannot recognize a loss of low-energy components from its spectrum. With

knowledge of the sound source, the listener will be able to calculate how

much low-energy information is missing and thus be able to determine the

general amount of distance between them and the object.

Knowledge of the timbre of the sound source will assist the listener in rec-

ognizing the absence of spectral information and/or perceiving the reit-

erations of the direct sound and the reverberant sound. These perceptions

will provide the listener with the needed information to judge distance. The

previous experiences and listening skills of the listener will play a major

role in the accuracy of judgments made.

Without prior knowledge of the timbre of a sound, perception of distance

location is considerably less accurate, causing judgments to be rough

estimates.

Related to the ratio of direct to reﬂ ected sound, the time difference between

the ceasing of the direct sound and the ceasing of the reverberant ener-

gy will increase with distance. Through

temporal fusion we perceive the

reverberant sound as being a part of the direct sound. This creates a single

impression of the sound in its environment (referred to as the composite

sound, above). As distance increases, temporal fusion begins to diminish

and the ending of the direct sound and the continuance of the reverberant

energy become more prominent.

Perception of Environmental Characteristics

The perceptions of the characteristics of the host environment and the

placement of the sound source within the host environment are also

dependent upon the ratio of direct to reﬂ ected sound and the loss of low-

level spectral components with increasing distance. In addition, the char-

acteristics of the host environment are perceived through:

1. The time difference between the arrival of the direct sound and the

arrival of the initial reﬂ ections,

2. The spacing in time of the early reﬂ ections,

3. Amplitude differences between the direct sound and all reﬂ ected sound

(the individual initial reﬂ ections and the reverberant sound), and

4. Timbre differences between the direct sound, the initial reﬂ ections,

and the reverberant sound.

The time delay between the direct and the reﬂ ected sounds is directly relat-

ed to (1) the distance between the sound source and the listener, (2) the

distance between the sound source and the reﬂ ective surfaces (which send

Chapter 1

the reﬂ ected sound to the listener), and (3) the distance of the reﬂ ective

surfaces from the listener. These three physical distances also create the

patterns of time relationships (the rhythms) of the early reﬂ ections.

Early reﬂ ections arrive at the listener within 50 ms of the direct sound.

These early reﬂ ections comprise the

early sound ﬁ eld. The early sound ﬁ eld

is composed of the ﬁ rst few reﬂ ections that reach the listener before the

beginning of the diffused, reverberant sound (see Figure 1-8). Many of the

characteristics of a host environment are disclosed during this initial portion

of the sound. The early sound ﬁ eld contains information that provides clues

as to the size of the environment, the type and angles of the reﬂ ective sur-

faces, even the construction materials and surface coverings of the space.

We have the capability to learn to accurately judge the size and character-

istics of the host environments of sound sources. This is accomplished by

evaluating the sound qualities of the environment. Humans experience and

remember the sound qualities of a great many natural environments in much

the same way as we recognize and remember timbres. Further, we have the

ability to compare the sound qualities of new environments we encounter

to our memories of environments we have previously experienced.

The listening skill needed to evaluate and recognize environmental char-

acteristics can be developed to a highly reﬁ ned level. Some people who

work regularly with acoustical environments develop these listening skills

to a point where many can perceive the dimensions and volume of an envi-

ronment, its surface coverings, or even openings within the space (doors,

windows, etc.).

Interaction of the Perceived Parameters

The perception of any parameter of sound is always dependent upon

the current states of the other parameters. Altering any of the perceived

parameters of sound will cause a change in the perceived state of at least

one other parameter.

The parameters of sound interact, causing the perception of the state of

one parameter to be altered by the state of another. Certain occurrences of

these interactions were noted under individual perceived parameters. The

following are additional examples of note and are separated for clarity.

Duration for Pitch Perception

Sufﬁ cient duration is required for the ear to perceive pitch. If the dura-

tion is too short, the sound will be perceived as having indeﬁ nite pitch, as

being noise-like. The time necessary for the mind to determine the pitch of

a sound is dependent on the frequency of the sound. Sounds lower than

500 Hz and sounds higher than 4 kHz require more time to establish pitch

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

quality than sounds pitched between 2 kHz and 4 kHz, where pitch percep-

tion is most acute. At the extremes of the hearing range, pitch quality may

require as much as 60 ms to become established.

Figure 1-17

Minimum

durations for pitch

perception at select

frequencies.

100

Fundamental Frequency (Hz)

Minimum Duration (msec)

200 400 800 2k 3k 5k4k

1k500

The length of time required to establish a perception of pitch will also depend

on the sound’s attack characteristics and its spectral content (its timbre).

Sounds with complex (but mostly harmonic) spectra and sounds with short

attack times will establish a perception of pitch sooner than other sounds.

Loudness and Pitch Perception

Loudness will inﬂ uence the perception of pitch, as humans will perceive

a change of pitch with a change of loudness (dynamic) level. The level 60

dB SPL (or about the loudness level of normal conversation) is considered

to be a threshold where increases or decreases in loudness affect pitch

perception oppositely. Above 60 dB, for sounds below 2 kHz a substantial

increase in loudness level will cause an apparent lowering of the pitch lev-

el; the sound will appear to go ﬂ at, although no actual change of pitch level

has occurred. Similarly, a substantial increase in the dynamic (loudness)

level of a pitch above 2 kHz will cause the sound to appear to go sharp; an

impression of the raising of the pitch level is created, although the actual

pitch level of the sound has remained unaltered. Below 60 dB an increase

in loudness will cause sounds below 2 kHz to be perceived as getting sharp

and sounds above 2 kHz perceived as going ﬂ at.

Chapter 1

Loudness and Time Perception

Loudness level can inﬂ uence perceived time relationships. When two

sounds begin simultaneously, they will appear to have staggered entranc-

es if one of the two sounds is signiﬁ cantly louder than the other. The louder

sound will be perceived as having been started ﬁ rst.

Perceived loudness level is often distorted by the speed at which informa-

tion is processed. When a large number of sounds occur in a short period

of time, the listener will perceive those sounds as having a higher loudness

level than sounds of the same sound pressure level, but that are distributed

over a longer period of time. This distortion of loudness level is caused by

the amount of information being processed within a speciﬁ c period of time

(the time period is related to the perceived length of the present).

Loudness Perception Altered by Duration and Timbre

Duration can distort the perception of loudness. Humans tend to average

loudness levels over a time period of about 2/10 of a second. Sounds of

shorter durations will appear to be louder than sounds (of the same inten-

sity) with durations longer than 2/10 of a second.

Timbre can also inﬂ uence perceived loudness. Sounds with a complex

spectrum will be perceived as being louder than sounds that contain fewer

partials. Similarly, sounds with more complex spectra with a strong pres-

ence of overtones will be perceived as louder than sounds containing

mostly proportionally related partials (harmonics), when both are at the

same sound-pressure level. Following this principle, a change of timbre

during the sustained duration of a sound will result in a perceived change

in loudness.

Pitch Perception and Spectrum

As a product of the interaction of the harmonics and closely related over-

tones of a sound’s spectrum, a timbre can create a perception of pitch

where a fundamental frequency is not physically present. The harmonics

of a sound reinforce its fundamental frequency to enhance the perception

of pitch. This phenomenon is so capable of producing the perception of

the fundamental frequency that a harmonic spectrum can provide the per-

ception of pitch when the fundamental frequency is not physically present

(missing fundamental). A perception of the periodicity of the fundamental

frequency is created by the spectrum of the sound, although that frequency

itself may not be present.

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

Amplitude, Time, and Location

The amplitude of two reiterated sounds (separated in time) can inﬂ uence

location perception. The precedence or Haas effect results when two loud-

speakers reproduce the same sound in close succession. The effect works

against the principle that when two loudspeakers reproduce a sound simul-

taneously, and at the same amplitude, the sound appears to be centered

between the two loudspeakers.

When two loudspeakers reproduce the same sound source in close suc-

cession, normal perception would seem to be to localize a sound source at

the earliest sounding loudspeaker, then to shift the image to center when

the second loudspeaker is sounded. The Haas effect functions to continue

the localization of the sound source at the ﬁ rst speaker location, while add-

ing the second loudspeaker (to reinforce the sound intensity of the ﬁ rst

speaker) without losing the localization of the sound source at the loca-

tion of the ﬁ rst loudspeaker. The time difference between the sounding of

the loudspeakers must be at least 3 ms to keep the sound at the leading

speaker, with 5 ms being a more effective minimum; a maximum delay

of approximately 25–30 ms may be used before the delayed signal is per-

ceived as an echo (echoes will be perceived at all frequencies at a delay of

50 ms). If the leading channel is lowered by 10 dB, or the following channel

increased by 10 dB, the sound source will again be centered.

Masking

Masking occurs when a sound (or a portion of a sound) is not perceived

because of the qualities of another sound. The simultaneous sounding of

two or more sounds can cause a sound of lower loudness level, or a sound

of more simple spectral content, to be masked or hidden from the percep-

tion of the listener. The masking of sounds is a common problem for people

beginning their studies or work in audio recording.

When two simultaneous sounds of relatively simple spectral content have

close fundamental frequencies, the sounds will tend to mask each other

and blend into a single, perceived sound. As the two sounds become sepa-

rated in frequency, the masking will become less pronounced until both

sounds are clearly distinguishable.

Sounds of relatively simple spectral content tend to mask sounds that are

at higher frequencies. This masking becomes more pronounced as the

loudness of the lower sound is increased, and is more likely to occur when

a large interval separates the two pitch levels of the sounds. This masking

is especially prominent if the two pitch levels are in a simple harmonic rela-

tionship (especially 2:1, 3:1, and 5:1). A higher pitched sound can mask a

lower pitched sound if the higher sound is signiﬁ cantly higher in loudness

level, and given the same conditions as above; the higher the loudness

level, the broader the range of frequencies a sound can mask.

Chapter 1

Masking can occur between successive sounds. With sounds separated in

time by up to 20–30 ms, the second sound may not be perceived if the

initial sound is of sufﬁ cient loudness level to draw and retain listener atten-

tion, or to fatigue the ear. In a similar way, a sound may not be perceived if

it is followed by another sound of great intensity within 10 ms.

Audio equipment can produce “white” and other broadband noise that

can mask sounds at all or many frequencies. An entire program might be

masked by the noise of the sound system itself, should the loudness level

of the noise be sufﬁ ciently higher than that of the program. This type of

masking problem will ﬁ rst be noticed in the high frequencies, where low

loudness levels exist in the upper components of the sound’s spectrum.

Summary

The three states of sound that concern audio recording are sound as it

exists in air (the physical dimensions of sound), sound as it exists in human

perception (the perceived parameters of sound), and the understanding of

the meaning of a sound (sound as a resource for artistic expression). The

physical dimensions of sound in air are transformed into neural impulses as

the perceived parameters of the sound by the ear and brain. The perceived

parameters of sound become understood as a resource of elements that

allow for the communication and understanding of the meaning of sound

(and artistic expression).

The two physical dimensions of the waveform are frequency and amplitude.

They function in time and form the basis for our understanding of timbre

and spatial properties. As frequency becomes perceived as pitch, amplitude

as loudness, time as duration, timbre as timbral characteristics, and space

as perceived locations and environmental characteristics—the anomalies of

human hearing transform acoustic energy into our perception with marked

changes. What these changes actually are, and how these changes take

place, are of great concern to the recording professional as they work in the

many ways sound is captured, created, modiﬁ ed, and perceived.

Sound, as it is perceived and understood by the human mind, becomes

the resource for creative and artistic expression in sound. The perceived

parameters of sound become the artistic elements of sound in creating

musical material and in communicating other meaningful messages. The

aesthetic and artistic elements of sound in audio recording are presented

in the next chapter.

The Elements of Sound and Audio Recording

Exercises

The following exercise should be practiced in short sessions over time, and

should be supplemented with writing out the harmonic series at a variety of

pitch/frequency levels.

Exercise 1-1

Learning the Sound Quality of the Harmonic Series

Tracks 1 and 2 on the accompanying CD provide examples of the harmonic

series. Learning the “sound quality” of the harmonic series will be valuable in

learning to identify the spectral content of sounds.

1. Listen carefully to the harmonic series being constructed a single pitch

at a time. Notice the spacing between the tones and the sequence of

intervals of the series. Work to commit the sequence to memory—both

the names of the intervals and the sound quality of the interval sequence

should be learned.

2. Through 10 partials, practice recalling the sequence of intervals by writ-

ing them.

3. Next, practice playing the sequence on a keyboard, remembering the high-

er intervals do not align with the equal-temper tuning of the keyboard.

4. Continue to listen to the harmonic series on the CD, and move your at-

tention to the quality of the “chord” that is played after the individual

pitches of the harmonic series. Listen carefully to this chord and try to

identify each individual pitch in it.

5. Repeat this process to obtain conﬁ dence in spelling the harmonic series

and recognizing its pitch succession and sound quality.

6. Repeat steps 2 through 5 with a series through 17 partials. Practice until

you are comfortable quickly conceptualizing each of the pitches in the

harmonic series when you hear the chord at the end of tracks 1 and 2.

The goal of this exercise is to bring the reader to recognize the “sound quality”

(or timbre) of the “chord” that is created by the harmonic series, in its speciﬁ c

voicing (or spacing) of intervals and pitches. This knowledge will be used as a

template against which the reader can have a point of departure in calculat-

ing the content of a sound’s spectrum.

2 The Aesthetic and Artistic

Elements of Sound in

Audio Recordings

The audio recording process has given creative artists the tools to very

ﬁ nely shape perceived sound (the perceived parameters of sound) through

a direct control of the physical dimensions of sound. This control of sound is

well beyond that which was available to composers and performers before

the presence of modern recording technology. It has brought new artistic

elements to music, which has led to a redeﬁ nition of the musician and to

new characteristics of sound. While our discussion is focused on musical

applications, it should be remembered that all aspects of these artistic ele-

ments of music also function as artistic elements in other areas of audio

(such as broadcast media, ﬁ lm, multimedia, theatre, etc.).

A new creative artist has evolved. This person uses the tools of recording

technology as sound resources for the creation (or recreation) of an artistic

product. This person may be a performer or composer in the traditional

sense, or this person may be one of the new musicians: a producer, or

sound engineer, or any of the host of other related job titles. Throughout

this book, these people are referred to as recordists.

Through its detailed control of sound, the audio-recording medium has

resources for creative expression that are not possible acoustically. Sounds

are created, altered, and combined in ways that are beyond the reality of

live, acoustic performance. New creative ideas and new additions to our

musical language have emerged as a result of recording techniques and

technologies.

Creative ideas are deﬁ ned by these aesthetic and artistic elements. The

artistic elements are the aspects of sound that comprise or characterize

creative ideas (or entire works of art or pieces of music). Study of the artis-

tic elements will allow us to understand individual musical ideas and the

The Aesthetic and Artistic Elements of Sound in Audio Recordings

larger musical event, and to recognize how those ideas and sound events

contribute to the entire piece of music. Discussion will emphasize the artis-

tic elements that are unique to recorded music, especially music created

through the use of modern recording techniques and technologies.

As we have learned from the previous chapter, the artistic elements of sound

are the mind/brain’s interpretation of the perceived parameters of sound.

Sound as it is perceived and understood by the human mind becomes the

resource for creative and artistic expression. The perceived parameters of

sound are utilized as the artistic elements of sound to create and ensure the

communication of meaningful (musical) messages.

The Art of Recording occurs through an understanding that the parameters

of sound are a resource for artistic expression. Recording becomes an art

when it is used to shape the substance of sound and music. These materi-

als that allow for artistic expression will be understood through a study of

their component parts: the artistic elements of sound.

The States of Sound and the Aesthetic/Artistic Elements

After the perception of sound, the recorded material is under stood as being

composed of sound elements that are interpreted by the mind/brain, and

thus communicate artistic ideas. The aesthetic/ artistic elements are directly

related to speciﬁ c perceived parameters of sound, just as the perceived

parameters of sound were directly related to speciﬁ c physical dimensions

of sound.

As will be remembered, sound in audio recording is in three states: physi-

cal dimensions, perceived parameters, and artistic elements.

The artistic elements are used by the recordist to shape music (sound),

resulting in artistic expression. The perceived parameters translate into the

artistic elements:

Table 2-1

The Perceived Parameters and the Aesthetic/Artistic Elements of Sound

Perceived Parameters Aesthetic/Artistic Elements

Pitch Pitch Levels and Relationships

Loudness Dynamic Levels and Relationships

Duration Rhythmic Patterns and Rate of Activity

Timbre (perceived overall

quality)

Sound Sources and Sound Quality

Space (perceived

characteristics)

Spatial Properties

The audio production process allows for considerable variation and a very

reﬁ ned control of ALL of the artistic elements of sound. All of the artis-

tic elements of sound can be accurately and precisely controlled through

Chapter 2

many states of variation, in ways that were possible with ONLY pitch on

traditional musical instruments.

Table 2-2

The States of Sound in Audio Recording

Physical Dimensions Perceived Parameters Artistic/Aesthetic Elements

(Acoustic State) (Psychoacoustic Conception) (Resources for Artistic Expression)

Frequency Pitch Pitch Levels and Relationships—

melodic lines, chords, register, range,

tonal organization, pitch areas, vibrato

Amplitude Loudness Dynamic Levels and Relationships—

program dynamic contour, accents,

tremolo, musical balance, RDL

Time Duration (time perception) Rhythmic Patterns and Rates of

Activities—tempo, time, patterns of

durations

Timbre (comprised of physical

components: dynamic enve-

lope, spectrum and spectral

envelope)

Timbre (perceived as overall

quality)

Sound Sources and Sound Qual-

ity—timbral balance, arranging,

performance intensity, performance

techniques

Space (comprised of physical

components created by the

interaction of the sound source

and the environment, and their

relationship to a microphone)

Space (perception of the sound

source as it interacts with the

environment, and perception of

the physical relationship of the

sound source and the listener)

Spatial Properties—stereo location,

surround location, phantom images,

moving sources, distance location,

sound-stage dimensions, imaging,

environmental characteristics, per-

ceived performance environment,

space within space

Pitch Levels and Relationships

Pitch-level relationships present most of the signiﬁ cant information in

music. The artistic message of most of today’s music is communicated (to

a large extent) by pitch relationships. Listeners have been trained, by the

music heard throughout their life, to focus on this element to obtain the

most signiﬁ cant musical information. The other artistic elements often sup-

port pitch patterns and relationships.

Pitch is the most precisely controlled artistic element in traditional music.

The use of pitch relationships and pitch levels in music is more sophisti-

cated than the use of the other artistic elements. Complex relationships of

pitch patterns and levels are common in music.

Information about the artistic element of pitch levels and relationships will

be related to:

1. The relative dominance of certain pitch levels,

2. The relative register placement of pitch levels and patterns, or

3. Pitch relationships: patterns of successive intervals, relationships of

those patterns, and relationships of simultaneous intervals.

The Aesthetic and Artistic Elements of Sound in Audio Recordings

Traditional Uses of Pitch

The aesthetic/artistic element of pitch levels and relationships is broken

into the component parts: melodic lines, chords, tonal organization, regis-

ter, range, pitch density, pitch areas, and tonal speech inﬂ ection.

A series of successive, related pitches creates

melodic lines. Melodic lines

are perceived as a sequence of intervals that appear in a speciﬁ c ordering

and that have rhythmic characteristics. The melodic line is often the pri-

mary carrier of the artistic message of a piece of music.

The ordering of intervals, coupled with or independent from rhythm, cre-

ates patterns.

Pattern perception is central to how humans perceive objects

and events. These basic principles relate to all of the components of the

artistic elements. Melodic lines are organized by patterns of intervals (short

melodic ideas, riffs, or motives), supported by corresponding rhythmic

patterns. The complexity of the patterns, the ways in which the patterns

are repeated, and the ways in which the patterns are modiﬁ ed provide the

melodic line with its unique character.

Two or more simultaneously sounding pitches create

chords. In much of

our music, chords are based on superimposing, or stacking, the intervals

of a third (intervals containing three and four semitones, most commonly).

Chords comprised of three pitches, combining two intervals of a third, are

called

triads. Continued stacking of thirds results in seventh, ninth, elev-

enth, and thirteenth chords.

The movement from one chord to another, or

harmonic progression, is the

most stylized of all the components of the artistic elements. Harmonic pro-

gression is the pattern created by successive chords, as based on the low-

est note (the root) of the triads (or more complex chords). These patterns of

chord progressions have become established as having general principles

that occur consistently in certain types of music. Certain types of music

will have stylized chord progressions (progressions that occur most fre-

quently), other types of music will have quite different movement between

chords, and perhaps emphasize more complex chord types. The patterns of

the harmonic progression create

harmony.

Harmony is one of the primary components that support the melodic line.

The chords in the harmonic progression reinforce pitches of the melody.

The speed and direction of the melodic line is often supported by the speed

at which chords are changed, and the patterns created by the changing

chords:

harmonic rhythm.

The expectations of harmonic progression create a sequence of chords,

which will present areas of tension and areas of repose within the musical

composition. The tendencies of

harmonic motion do much to shape the

momentum of a piece of music and can greatly enhance the character of

the melodic line and musical message. Performers utilize the psychological

Chapter 2

tendencies of harmonic progression, exploiting its directional and dramatic

tendencies. The expectations of harmonic movement and the psychological

characteristics of harmonic progression have become important aspects of

musical expression and musical performance.

The melodic and harmonic pitch materials are related through

tonal orga-

nization. Certain pitch materials are emphasized over others, in varying

degrees, in nearly all music. This emphasis creates systems of tonal organi-

zation in which a hierarchy of pitch levels exist. A hierarchy will most often

place one pitch in a predominant role, with all other pitches having func-

tions of varying importance, in supporting the primary pitch. The primary

pitch, or

tonal center, becomes a reference level to which all pitch material

is related, and around which pitch patterns are organized.

Many tonal organization systems exist. These systems tend to vary signiﬁ -

cantly by cultures, with most cultures using several different but related

systems. The major and minor tonal organization systems of Western music

are examples of different but related systems, as are the whole-tone and

pentatonic systems of Eastern Asia. The reader should consult appropriate

music theory texts for more detailed information on tonal organization, as

necessary.

The New Pitch Concerns of Audio Production

Certain components of pitch levels and relationships have become more

prominent in musical contexts (and other areas of audio) because of the

new treatments of pitch relationships in music recordings. The components

of range, register, pitch density, and pitch area can be more closely con-

trolled in recorded music than in live (unampliﬁ ed) performance. These com-

ponents are more important in recorded music, because they are precisely

controllable by the technology, and they have been controlled to support

and enhance the musical material.

Range is the span of pitches of a sound source (any instrument or voice).

Range is the area of pitches that encompasses the highest note possible (or

present in a certain musical example) to the lowest note possible (or pres-

ent) of a particular sound source.

character (such as a unique timbre, or some other determining factor) that

will differentiate it from all other areas of the same range. It is a small area

within the source’s range that is unique in some way. Ranges are often

divided into many registers; registers may encompass a very small group

of successive pitches, up to a considerable portion of the source’s range.

pitch area is a portion of any range (or of a register) that may or may

not exhibit characteristics that are unique from other areas. Instead, it is a

deﬁ ned area between an upper and a lower pitch level, in which a speciﬁ c

activity or sound exists.

The Aesthetic and Artistic Elements of Sound in Audio Recordings

Pitch density is the relative amount and register placement of simultaneously

sounding pitch material, throughout the hearing range or within a speciﬁ c

pitch area. It is the amount and placement of pitch material in the compos-

ite musical texture (the overall sound of the piece of music), and is deﬁ ned

by its boundaries of highest and lowest sounding pitches.

With pitch density, sound sources are assigned (or perceived as occupying)

a certain pitch area within the entire listening range (or the smaller pitch

range used for a certain piece of music). Thus, certain pitch areas will have

more activity than other pitch areas; certain sound sources will be present

only in certain pitch areas, and other sources present only in other pitch

areas; some sources may share pitch areas and cause more activity to be

present in those portions of the range; some pitch areas may be void of

activity. Many possible variations exist.

Pitch density is a component of pitch-level relationships, and is directly

related to traditional concerns of orchestration and instrumentation, with

many new twists. Pitch density is a much more speciﬁ c concern in recorded

music because it is controllable in very ﬁ ne increments. Traditional orches-

tration was concerned, basically, with the selection of instruments, and

with the placement of the musical parts (performed by those assigned

instruments and their sound qualities) against one another.

The register placement of sound sources and their interaction with the oth-

er sound sources take on many more dimensions with the controls of the

recording process. Each sound source occupies a pitch area; the acoustic

energy within the pitch area of a timbre’s spectrum is distributed in ways

that are unique to each sound source. The spectrum of each sound source

is the pitch density of an individual sound source. The pitch density of the

overall program (or musical texture) is the composite of all of the simulta-

neous pitch information from all sound sources, and is timbral balance.

The pitch area they occupy within the timbral balance of the overall pro-

gram often delineates sound sources, and musical ideas. Sound sources

are more easily perceived as being separate entities and individual ideas

when they occupy their own pitch area in the overall program. This area

can be large or quite small, and still be effective.

Sounds that do not have well-deﬁ ned pitch quality occupy a

pitch area.

These types of sounds are noise-like, in that they cannot be perceived as

being at a speciﬁ c pitch. Such sounds may, however, have unique pitch

characteristics.

Many sounds cannot be recognized as having a speciﬁ c pitch, yet have a

number of frequencies that dominate their spectrum. Cymbals and drums

easily fall into this category. Cymbals are easily perceived as sounding

higher or lower than one another, yet a speciﬁ c pitch cannot be assigned

to the sound source.

Chapter 2

We perceive these sounds as occupying a pitch area. We perceive a pitch-

type quality based on (1) the register placement of the area of the highest

concentration of pitch information (at the highest amplitude level) present

in the sound, and (2) the relative density (closeness of the spacing of pitch

levels) of the pitch information (spectral components). We are able to iden-

tify the approximate area of pitches in which this concentration of spectral

energy occurs, and are thus able to relate that area to other sounds.

Pitch areas are deﬁ ned as the range spanned by the lowest and highest

dominant frequencies around the area of the spectral activity. This range

is called the

bandwidth of the pitch area. Many sounds will have several

pitch areas of concentrated amounts of spectral energy. In such cases, one

range will dominate and the others will be less prominent. The size of the

bandwidth and the density of spectral information (the number of frequen-

cies within the bandwidth and the spacing of those frequencies) deﬁ ne the

sound quality of pitch areas.

Dynamic Levels and Relationships

Dynamic levels and relationships have traditionally been used in musi-

cal contexts for expressive or dramatic purposes. Expressive changes in

dynamic levels and the relationships of those changes have most often

been used to support the motion of melodic lines, to enhance the sense of

direction in harmonic motion, or to emphasize a particular musical idea. A

change of dynamic level, in and of itself, can produce a dramatic musical

event and is a common musical occurrence. Changes in dynamic level can

be gradual or sudden, subtle or extreme.

Dynamics have traditionally been described by analogy: louder than, softer

than, very loud (fortissimo), soft (piano), medium loud (mezzo forte), etc.

The artistic element of dynamics in a piece of music is judged in relation to

context. Dynamic levels are gauged in relation to (1) the overall, reference

dynamic level of the piece of music, (2) the sounds occurring simultaneously

with a sound source in question, and (3) the sounds that immediately follow

and precede a particular sound.

The components of dynamic levels and relationships in audio recording

are dynamic contour (with gradual and abrupt changes in dynamic level),

emphasis/de-emphasis accents (abrupt changes in dynamic level), musi-

cal balance (gradual and abrupt changes in dynamic levels), and dynamic

speech inﬂ ections.

Traditional Uses of Dynamics

It is common for the most important musical idea/sound source in a piece

of music to be given prominence in one way or another. Making that

sound the loudest is an easy way of achieving this prominence (though not

The Aesthetic and Artistic Elements of Sound in Audio Recordings

always the most elegant). Arranging sounds by relating dynamic levels to

the importance of the musical part are very common, and a very natural

association of loudness and the center of one’s attention.

Gradual changes in dynamic levels can be important. The crescendo (grad-

ual increasing in loudness) can be used to support the motion of a melodic

line (for instance), or it might be used on a sustained pitch as a musical

gesture itself. Likewise a diminuendo or decrescendo (a gradual decrease

in loudness) may be used in the same ways.

Rapid, slight alterations or changes in dynamic level for expressive pur-

poses are often present in live performances. This is called

tremolo, and is

used primarily to add interest and substance to a sustained sound.

Tremolo

and vibrato are often confused. Vibrato is a rapid, slight variation of the

pitch of a sound; it also is used to enhance the sound quality of the sound

source. At times, performers may not be able to control their sound well

enough to control tremolo and vibrato alterations; in these instances, trem-

olo and vibrato may detract from the source’s sound quality, rather than

contribute to it.

To support a musical idea or to create a sense of drama, musical ideas

are often brought to the listener’s attention by dynamic

emphasis accents

and attenuation accents. A shift in dynamic level that brings the listener’s

attention to a musical idea is an accent. Accents are most often emphasis

accents, making use of increasing the dynamic level of the sound to achieve

the desired result. Much more difﬁ cult to successfully achieve, de-emphasis

(or attenuation) accents draw the listener’s attention to a musical idea, or a

sound source, by a decrease in the dynamic level of the sound. Attenuation

accents are often unsuccessful because the listener has a natural tendency

to move attention away from softer sounds; these accents are most easily

accomplished in sparse musical textures, where little else is going on to

draw the listener’s attention away from the material being accented.

New Concepts of Dynamic Levels and Relationships

Changes in dynamic levels over time comprise dynamic contours. Dynamic

contours can be perceived for individual sounds, individual sound sources,

and individual musical ideas composed of a number of sound sources, and

the overall piece of music. Dynamic contours are perceived at many differ-

ent

perspectives (level of detail). At their extremes, they exist as the small-

est changes within the spectral envelope of a single sound source, and as

great changes in the overall dynamic level of a recording.

The interaction of the dynamic contours of all sound sources in a piece of

music creates

musical balance. Musical balance is the interrelationships of

the dynamic levels of each sound source, to one another and to the entire

musical texture. The dynamic level of a particular sound source in relation to

another sound source is a comparison of two parts of the musical balance.

Chapter 2

Dynamic contours and musical balance have been used in supportive roles

in most traditional music. At times dynamic level changes have been used

for their own dramatic impact on the music (as discussed with crescendo

and diminuendo, above), but most often they are used to assist the effec-

tiveness of another artistic element. The mixing process easily alters musi-

cal balance. Recordists exercise great control over this artistic element.

The dynamic levels and relationships of a performance may be signiﬁ cant-

ly different in the ﬁ nal recording. The recording process has very precise

control over the dynamic levels of a sound source in the musical balance

of the ﬁ nal recording. An instrument may have an audible dynamic level in

the musical balance of a recording that is very different from the dynamic

level at which the instrument was originally performed. The timbre of the

instrument will exhibit the dynamic levels at which it was performed (

per-

ceived performance intensity), but its relative dynamic level in relation to

the other musical parts might be signiﬁ cantly altered by the mix. For exam-

ple, an instrument may be recorded playing a passage loudly, and end up

in the ﬁ nal musical balance (mix) at a very soft dynamic level; the timbre

of the instrument will indicate that the passage was performed very loudly,

yet the actual dynamic level will be quite soft in relation to the overall musi-

cal texture, and to the other instruments of the texture.

Many clear examples of this are found in The Beatles’

recording of “Penny Lane.” Listening carefully to the ﬂ utes,

piccolo, and piccolo trumpet parts throughout the song, one

will ﬁ nd many instances where the loudness levels of the

performances are not reﬂ ected in the actual loudness levels

of the instruments in the recording. Among many instances

of conﬂ icting levels and timbre cues, we hear moderately

loud ﬂ utes that were performed softly; loudly played pic-

colo sounds at a soft level in the mix; and a piccolo trumpet

appearing at a softer level than in the performance. Other

instruments and voices in the song also have inconsistent

musical balance and performance intensity information.

The reader is encouraged to take the time now to perform

the musical balance and performance intensity Exercise 2-1

at the end of this chapter.

The dynamic level of a sound source in relation to other sound sourc-

es, or musical balance, is quite different and distinct from the perceived

distance of one sound source to another. Yet, these two occurrences are

often confused and are the source of much common, misleading termi-

nology used by recordists. Signiﬁ cant differences are present between a

softly generated sound that is close to the listener and a loudly performed

sound that is at a great distance to the listener, even when the two sounds

have precisely the same sound pressure level (SPL) or perceived loudness

level. Loudness levels within the recording process are independently

Listen . . .

to track 38

for musical balance relationships

that are changed from the origi-

nal performance. The drum mix

has many unnatural relationships

of performance intensity versus

musical balance; some are over

exaggerated to provide clarity of

the topic.

The Aesthetic and Artistic Elements of Sound in Audio Recordings

controllable from the loudness level at which the sound was performed,

and are independently controllable from the distance of the sound source

from the original receptor and from the perceived listening location of the

ﬁ nal recording. Dynamics must not be confused with distance. Dynamic

levels, themselves, do not deﬁ ne distance location.

Rhythmic Patterns and Rates of Activities

Durations of sounds (the length of time in which the sound exists) combine

to create musical rhythm. Rhythm is based on the perception of a steadily

recurring, underlying pulse. The pulse does not need to be strongly audible

to be perceived. The underlying pulse (or

metric grid) is easily recognized

by humans as the strongest common proportion of duration (note value)

heard in the music.

The rate of the pulses of the metric grid is the

tempo of a piece of music.

Tempo is measured in metronome markings (pulses per minute, abbrevi-

ated “M.M.”), or in some contexts as pulses per quarter note. Tempo, in a

larger sense, can be the rate of activity of any large or small aspect of the

piece of music (or of some other aspect of audio, for example the tempo

of a dialogue).

Durations of sound are perceived proportionally in relation to the pulse of

the metric grid. The human mind will organize the durations into groups of

durations, or

rhythmic patterns. In the same ways that we perceive patterns

of pitches, we perceive patterns of durations. Pattern perception is trans-

ferable to all of the components of all of the artistic elements, and is the

traditional way in which we perceive pitch and rhythmic relationships.

Rhythmic patterns are the durations of or between sound-

ings of any artistic element. Rhythmic patterns might be

created by the pulsing of a single percussion sound; in this

way rhythmic patterns would be created by the durations

between the occurrences of the starts of the same sound

source. Rhythmic patterns comprising of the durations of

successive, single pitches (perhaps including some silences)

create melody. Rhythmic patterns of the durations of suc-

cessive chords (groups of pitches) create harmonic rhythm.

Extending this, in the same way rhythm can be transferred

to ALL artistic elements. As examples, it is possible to have

rhythms of sound location (as has become a common mixing technique

for percussion sounds); it is likewise possible to have timbre melodies, or

rhythms applied to patterns of identiﬁ able timbres (this is often used for

drum solos).

Listen . . .

to tracks 45, 46 and 53

for rhythmic patterns of timbre

and location created by the drum

mixes.

Chapter 2

Sound Sources and Sound Quality

The selection, modiﬁ cation, or creation of sound sources is an important

aesthetic and artistic element of audio recording. The sound quality of

the sound sources (the timbre of the source) plays a central role in the

presentation of musical ideas, and has become an increasingly signiﬁ cant

form of musical expression.

The sound quality of a sound source may cause a musical part to stand out

from others, or to blend into an ensemble. Sound quality alone can convey

tension or repose and give direction to a musical idea. Sound quality can

add dramatic or extra-musical meaning or signiﬁ cance to a musical idea.

Finally, the timbral quality of a sound source can, itself, be a primary musi-

cal idea, capable of conveying a meaningful musical message.

Until recently, composers used the sound quality of a sound source (1) to

assist in delineating and differentiating musical ideas (making them easier

to distinguish from one another), (2) to enhance the expression of a musi-

cal idea by the careful selection of the appropriate musical instrument to

perform a particular musical idea, or (3) to create a composite timbre (or

texture) of the ensemble, thereby forming a characteristic, overall sound-

quality—timbral balance (also called tonal balance).

Performers have always used the characteristic timbres of their instruments

or voices to enhance musical interpretation. This activity has been greatly

reﬁ ned by the resources of recording and sound-reinforcement technol-

ogy. Performers now have greater ﬂ exibility in shaping the timbre of their

instruments for creative expression. Of equally great importance, after

the performance has been captured, the recording process allows for the

opportunity to return to the performance for further (perhaps extensive)

modiﬁ cations of sound quality.

The selection of a sound source to represent (present) a particular musical

idea is critical to the successful presentation of the idea. The act of selecting

a sound source is among the most important decisions composers (and

producers) make. The options for selecting sound sources are (1) to choose

a particular instrumentation, (2) to modify the sound quality of an existing

instrument or performance, or (3) to create, or synthesize, a sound source

to meet the speciﬁ c need of the musical idea.

The

selection of instrumentation was once merely a matter of deciding

which generic instrument of those available would perform a certain musi-

cal line. The selection of instrumentation has now become very speciﬁ c and

much more important. The performance that exists as a music recording

may virtually live forever and be heard by countless people. This is very dif-

ferent from the typical, live music performance of the past that existed for

only a passing moment and was heard by only those people present.

Today, the selection of instrumentation is often so speciﬁ c as to be a selec-

tion of a particular performer playing a particular model of an instrument.

The Aesthetic and Artistic Elements of Sound in Audio Recordings

Generally, composers and producers are very much aware of the sound

quality they want for a particular musical idea. The performer, the way the

performer can develop a musical idea through their own personal perfor-

mance techniques, and their ability to use sound quality for musical expres-

sion are all considerations in the selection of instrumentation.

Vocalists are commonly sought for the sound quality of their voice and their

abilities to perform in particular singing styles. The vocal line of most songs

is the focal point that carries the weight of musical expression. Vocalists

make great use of performance techniques to enhance and develop their

sound quality, as well as to support the drama and meaning of the text.

Performance techniques vary greatly between instruments, musical styles,

performers, and functions of a musical idea. The most suitable perfor-

mance techniques will be those that achieve the desired musical results,

when the sound sources are ﬁ nally combined. One performance technique

consideration that must be singled out for special attention is the intensity

level of a performance.

As touched on in the discussion above with musical balance, a performance

on a musical instrument will take place at a particular intensity level. This

perceived performance intensity is comprised of loudness, energy exerted,

performance technique, and the expressive qualities of the performance.

Each performance at a different intensity level results in a different charac-

teristic timbre of that instrument, at that loudness level.

The same sound source will thus have different timbres, at different loud-

ness levels (and at different pitch levels), through performance intensity.

Along with the timbre (sound quality) and loudness level, performance

intensity can communicate a sense of drama and an artistically sensitive pre-

sentation of the music to the listener. Through performance intensity, louder

sounds might be more urgent, more intense; softer sounds might be cause

for relaxation of musical motion. The exact reverse is equally possible. The

expressive qualities of music are contained in performance intensity cues.

Modifying a sound source is a common way of creating a desired sound

quality. Instruments, voices, or any other sound may be modiﬁ ed (while

being recorded, or afterwards) to achieve a desired sound quality. Most

often, this takes the form of making detailed modiﬁ cations to a particular

instrument so it best presents the musical idea. The ﬁ nal sound quality will

still have some (perhaps many, perhaps only a few) characteristic qualities

of the original sound.

The extensive modiﬁ cation of an existing sound source, to the point

where the characteristic qualities of the original sound are lost, is actu-

ally

the creation of a sound source. The creation of new sound qualities

(or inventing timbres) has become an important feature in many types or

pieces of music. The recording process easily allows for the creation of new

sound sources, with new sound qualities.

Chapter 2

Sound qualities are created by either extensively modifying an existing

sound through sound-sampling technologies, or by synthesizing a wave-

form. Sound-synthesis techniques allow precise control over these two

processes, and are having a widespread impact on recording practice and

musical styles. Many speciﬁ c technologies and techniques exist for synthe-

sizing and sampling sounds; all have unique sound qualities and unique

ways of allowing the user to modify or synthesize a sound source.

A new sense of the importance of sound quality to communicate, as well

as to enhance, the musical message has come from this increased empha-

sis on sound quality and timbre. Sound quality has become a central ele-

ment in a number of the primary decisions of recording music, as well as

in the creation of music through the recording process. In making these

basic decisions, sound quality is conceptualized as an object. The sound is

thought of as a complete and individual entity, capable of being pulled out

of time and out of context.

In this way, sound quality is approached as a

sound object. This important

concept will be explored in detail later in Chapter 4, Listening and Evaluat-

ing Sound for the Audio Professional.

The entire, composite sound of the music may also be conceptualized as a

single entity, or overall sound quality. It is composed of all the sound sourc-

es and musical ideas. This sound quality of the overall sound, or entire

program, is called

timbral balance. It is perceived and recognized as the

sound-quality characteristics of the overall program.

The overall texture of the recording is perceived as an overall character,

made up of the states and activities of all sounds and musical ideas. Pitch-

ties are all potentially important factors in deﬁ ning a texture by the states or

activities of its component parts. This will be covered in detail in Chapter 10.

Spatial Properties: Stereo and Surround Sound

The

spatial properties of sound have traditionally not been used in musical

contexts. The only exceptions are the location effects of antiphonal ensem-

bles of certain Renaissance composers and in certain drama-related works

of the nineteenth century, such as the 1837

Requiem by Hector Berlioz (with

its brass ensembles stationed at the corners of the church, performing

against the orchestra and choir on stage).

The spatial properties of sound can play important roles in communicat-

ing the artistic message of recorded music, however. The roles of spatial

properties of sound are many. Spatial properties may be used in supportive

roles to enhance the character or effectiveness of musical ideas (large and

small), to differentiate one sound source from another, to provide dramatic

impact, to alter reality, or to reinforce reality by providing a performance

space for the music. Further, spatial properties may be used as the primary

The Aesthetic and Artistic Elements of Sound in Audio Recordings

idea of an artistic gesture. The spatial property of environmental character-

istics even fuses with the timbre of the sound source to add a new dimen-

sion to its sound quality. Many other possibilities certainly exist.

The number and types of roles that spatial location may play in music have

yet to be exhausted or deﬁ ned. The adoption of surround sound has further

multiplied the possibilities.

All of the components of the spatial properties are under quite precise and

independent control. All of the spatial properties may be in many markedly

different and fully audible states. Further, gradual and continuously vari-

able change between those states is possible and common.

The spatial properties of sound that are of primary concern to recorded

music (sound) are:

1. The

stereo location of the sound source on the horizontal plane of the

stereo array,

2. The

distance of the sound source from the listener,

3. The perceived characteristics of the sound source’s physical

environment,

4. The surround location of sound sources on the lateral plane 360°

around the listener,

Perceived performance environment of the recording.

The perceived elevation of a sound source is not consistently reproducible

in widely used playback systems, and has not yet become a resource for

artistic expression.

Two-Channel Stereo

The spatial qualities of stereo playback are perceived as relationships of

location and distance cues and relationships of sound sources. These cre-

ate a perception of a

sound stage contained within the perceived perfor-

mance environment of the recording.

While surround sound is becoming more prevalent, two-channel sound

reproduction remains the standard of the music recording industry, with

monophonic capabilities still considered for certain Internet, radio broadcast

and television sound applications. The two-channel array of

stereo sound

attempts to reproduce all spatial cues through two separate sound loca-

tions (loudspeakers), each with more-or-less independent content (chan-

nel). With the two channels, it is possible to create the illusion of sound

location at a loudspeaker, in between the two loudspeakers, or slightly

outside the boundaries of the loudspeaker array; location is limited to the

area slightly beyond that covered by the stereo array, and to the horizontal

plane. The characteristics of the sound source’s environment and distance

from the listener are created in much more subtle ways by stereo, but can

be stunning nonetheless.

Chapter 2

A setting is created by the two-channel playback format for the reproduc-

tion of a recorded or created performance (complete with spatial cues).

This establishes a conceptual and physical environment within which the

recording will be reproduced more-or-less accurately.

The reproduced recording presents an illusion of a live performance. This

performance will be perceived as having existed in reality, in a real physi-

cal space, as the listener will imagine the activity in relation to his or her

own physical reality. The recording will appear to be contained in a single,

perceived physical environment. Within this perceived space is an area that

comprises the

sound stage.

Sound Stage and Imaging

The sound stage encompasses the area within which all sound sources are

perceived as being located. It has an apparent physical size of width and

depth. The sound sources of the recording will be grouped by the mind

to occupy a single area, from which the music is being played. It is pos-

sible for different sound sources to occupy signiﬁ cantly different locations

within the sound stage but still be grouped into the illusion of a single

performance.

Imaging is the lateral location and distance placement of the individual

sound sources within the sound stage. Imaging provides depth and width

to the sound stage. The perceived locations and relationships of the sound

sources create imaging, as all sources appear to exist at a certain lateral

and distance location within the stereo array.

Figure 2-1

Sound

stage and the per-

ceived performance

environment.

PERCEIVED PERFORMANCE ENVIRONMENT

Containment Walls

Sound Stage

The Aesthetic and Artistic Elements of Sound in Audio Recordings

Stereo Location

The stereo (lateral) location of a sound source is the perceived placement of

the sound source in relation to the stereo array. Sound sources may be per-

ceived at any lateral location within, or slightly beyond, the stereo array.

Phantom images are sound sources that are perceived to be sounding at

locations where a physical sound source does not exist. Imaging relies

on phantom imaging to create lateral localization cues for sound sources.

Through the use of phantom images, sound sources may be perceived at

any physical location within the stereo loudspeaker array,

and up to 15° beyond the loudspeaker array.

Stage width

(sometimes called stereo spread) is the width of the entire

sound stage. It is the area between the extreme left and right

source images and marks the sound stage boundaries.

Phantom images not only provide the illusion of the location

of a sound source, but also create the illusion of the physi-

cal size (width) of the source. Two types of phantom images

exist: the

spread image and the point source.

point source phantom image occupies a focused, precise

point in the sound stage. The listener can close their eyes

and point to a very precise point of little area where the

source is heard to originate. Point sources exist at a speciﬁ c

point in space, narrow in width, and precisely located in the

sound stage.

The

spread image appears to occupy an area. It is a phantom

image that has a size that extends between two audible boundaries. The

potential size of the spread image varies considerably; it might be slightly

wider than a point source or it may occupy the entire stereo array. The

spread image is deﬁ ned by its boundaries; it will be perceived to occupy an

area between two points or edges. At times, a spread image may appear

to have a hole in the middle, where it might occupy two more-or-less equal

areas, one on either side on the stereo array.

The perceived lateral location of sound sources can be altered to provide

the illusion of

moving sources. Moving sound sources may be either point

sources or spread images. Point sources and narrow spread images that

change location most closely resemble our real-life experiences of moving

objects.

Many interesting examples of phantom images can be found on The Bea-

tles’ album

Abbey Road. An apparent example of a spread image with a

hole in the middle is the tambourine in the ﬁ rst chorus of “She Came in

Through the Bathroom Window.” The lead vocal in “You Never Give Me

Your Money” begins the song as a point source. The image soon becomes

a spread image that gradually grows wider, ultimately occupying a signiﬁ -

cant amount of the sound stage (this is partly due to the gradual addition

Listen . . .

to tracks 42 and 43

for narrow and wide spread

images of a guitar;

to track 48

for a variety of spread image sizes

of drum sounds and point source

cymbal bells.

Chapter 2

and varying of environmental cues, which will be discussed shortly). In the

second section of the work, the new lead vocal sound gradually moves

from the right to the left side of the sound stage, while maintaining a spread

image of moderate size.

Figure 2-2

Sound

stage and imaging,

with phantom images

of various sizes.

PERCEIVED PERFORMANCE ENVIRONMENT

Listener’s Perceived

Location

Sound Stage

High Kybd

High Hat

Lead Vocal

Background Vocals

Acoustic Guitar

Bass Drum

Low Keyboard

Flute

Bass

Tambourine

Perceived

Depth

Sound

Stage

Perceived Width

of Sound Stage

Distance Location

Two important distance cues shape recorded music: (1) the distance of the

listener to the sound stage, and (2) the distance of each sound source from

the listener.

Both of these distances rely on a perception that the entire recording ema-

nates from a single, global environment. This

perceived performance envi-

ronment

establishes a reference location of the listener, from which all

judgments of distance can be calculated.

The

stage-to-listener distance establishes the front edge of the sound stage

with respect to the listener and determines the level of intimacy of the

music/recording. This is the distance between the grouped sources that

make up the sound stage and the perceived position of the audience/listen-

er. This stage-to-listener distance places the sound stage within the overall

environment of the recording and provides a location for the listener.

The

depth of sound stage is the area occupied by the distance of all sound

sources. The boundaries of the depth of the sound stage are the perceived

nearest and the perceived furthest sound sources (with the depths created

by their environments, discussed below). The perceived distances of sound

The Aesthetic and Artistic Elements of Sound in Audio Recordings

sources within the sound stage may be extreme; they may

provide the illusion of great depth and a large area, or the

exact opposite.

Stage-to-listener and depth-of-sound-stage distance cues

have different levels of importance in different applications.

Depth-of-sound-stage cues tend to be emphasized over

stage-to-listener distance cues in many multitrack record-

ings; in those recordings, the cues of the distance of the

source from the listener are often exploited for dramatic

effect and/or to support musical ideas. In contrast, stage-

to-listener distance cues are often carefully calculated in

classical and some jazz recordings (especially those utiliz-

ing standardized stereo microphone techniques); in those

recordings the stage-to-listener distance will not change

and has been carefully selected to represent an appropri-

ate vantage point (the ideal seat) from which to hear the music.

Turning again to

Abbey Road, the distance cues of the various instruments

of “Golden Slumbers” gives the work and its companion “Carry That

Weight” much space between the nearest and the furthest sources. The

orchestral string and brass instruments are at some distance from the lis-

tener and give signiﬁ cant depth to the sound stage, while the piano estab-

lishes the front edge of the sound stage very near the listener. Remember-

ing that timbral detail is the primary determinant of distance location will

help in accurately hearing these cues.

Environmental Characteristics

It has become important for music recordings to have sound sources

matched with an environment with a suitable sound, and to have a suit-

able environment for the sound stage (the perceived performance environ-

ment). Through these,

environmental characteristics have the potential to

signiﬁ cantly impact music and the quality of the recording.

Environmental characteristics fuse with the sound source to create a single

sonic impression. The host environment shapes the overall timbre/sound

quality of each sound source; this is also true for the overall program

(shaped by its perceived performance environment). Environmental char-

acteristics contribute greatly to sound quality and also play an important

role in the recording’s sense of space. The characteristics provide a space

for the sound sources to perform in, they supply some distance informa-

tion that may be signiﬁ cant, and they contribute to the perceived depth of

the sound stage.

The sound characteristics of the host environments of sound sources and the

complete sound stage are precisely controllable. Each sound source has the

Listen . . .

to tracks 39-41

for distance changes of a single

cello performance

to track 48

for a variety of distance locations

within a single drum mix.

Chapter 2

potential to be assigned environmental characteristics that are different from

the other sound sources. The recording process allows the potential for each

sound source to be given a different environment, and for the characteristics

of those environments to be varied as desired. Further, each source may

occupy any distance from the listener within the applied host environment.

The

perceived performance environment (or the environment of the sound

stage) is the overall environment where the performance

(recording) is heard as taking place. This environment

binds all the individual spaces together into a single per-

formance area.

The environment of the sound stage and an individual

environment for each sound source (or groups of sound

sources) often coexist in the same music recording. This

places the individual sound sources with their individual

environments within the overall, perceived performance

environment of the recording. The illusion of

space within

space is thus created, with the following potential perceptions:

1. That physical spaces may exist side-by-side,

2. That one physical space may exist within another physical space (where

often a space with the sound qualities of a physically large room may

be perceived to exist within a smaller physical space), and

3. That several sounds may exist at various distances within the same

host environment (space).

Any number of environments and associated stage-depth distance cues

may occur simultaneously, and coexist within the same sound stage. The

environments and associated distances are conceptually bound by the

spatial impression of the perceived performance environment. These out-

er walls of the overall program establish a reference (subliminally, if not

aurally) for the comparison of the sound sources.

Perhaps oddly, the overall space that serves as a reference, and that is per-

ceived by the listener as being the space within which all activities occur,

will often have the sound characteristics of an environment that is signiﬁ -

cantly smaller than the spaces it appears to contain. Such cues that send

conﬂ icting messages between our life experiences and the perceived musi-

cal occurrence are readily accepted by the listener and can be used to great

artistic advantage. This is a very common space-within-space relationship.

Space within space will at times be coupled with distance cues to accentu-

ate the different environments (spaces) of the sound sources, though often

this illusion is created solely by the environmental characteristics of the

different spaces of each sound source.

“Here Comes the Sun,” also from

Abbey Road, provides some clear exam-

ples of space within space. Environments clearly exist side by side from

the song’s opening into the ﬁ rst verse. The guitar has an environment all

Listen . . .

to tracks 45-47

for several different space within

space examples.

The Aesthetic and Artistic Elements of Sound in Audio Recordings

to itself in the left channel, the electronic keyboard counter-melody and

Moog synthesizer glissando have similar environments distinctly different

from the others, and the right channel voice has a very different third

environment. The parts are held together by the notion that they all exist

within a single performance space (perceived performance environment).

The entry of additional instruments quickly adds numerous additional envi-

ronments and enhances the sound stage. As the vocal lines are added,

however, they appear to be within the same environment, though at dis-

tinctly different distances from the listener. The notion of spaces within

spaces is also apparent in the drum parts; the drum set seems to occupy

an area, with its characteristic environment, within which low toms in a

larger space are contained.

Surround Sound

Music recordings in surround sound are becoming more important.

Enough activity and interest is present that it is necessary for us to serious-

ly explore this format now, but with some reservation. While some talented

people have been working in this new format and some striking record-

ings have been made, few consistent uses of the unique sound qualities of

surround have emerged. This section will discuss the most prevalent aes-

thetic and artistic elements currently found in surround music recordings,

and will explore some potential applications. Without doubt, recordists

will further deﬁ ne the artistic elements of surround over the coming years;

great changes and advances are likely, as the medium is further explored

in music production.

Listening to a stereo recording, we ﬁ nd ourselves observing a performance.

We are viewing the activity as an outsider. And while we may get con-

sumed by or immersed in the music, we are outside of the experience of

the performance itself and are looking in. With surround sound, we can ﬁ nd

ourselves enveloped by the music. We can be surrounded by the sound,

and thereby contained within the space of the recording; we are no longer

outside observers, but at least inside observers if not participants (at least

in our perception of the experience). Now the listener can be enveloped by

the sound (and become part of the space of the recording) or they might

be oriented by the production techniques to observe a piece of music as a

360° panorama of sound. This aspect of surround sound has great poten-

tial for making a profound impact on music. Location and environmental

characteristics will be approached differently for surround recordings, and

distance cues will also take on new dimensions.

Surround Location

The sound stage of surround sound is vastly more complicated than ste-

reo. Imaging takes on many strikingly new and different dimensions. With

Chapter 2

independent channels surrounding the listener, the potential exists for the

sound stage to be extended enormously. This also places the listener in a

listening position that is strikingly different from stereo.

As discussed, stereo is based on a single sound stage between two speak-

ers, whereas 5:1 surround (the format used for evaluations herein, dis-

cussed in detail in Chapter 9) provides the opportunity for as many as 26

possible combinations of speakers. This changes phantom image place-

ment, width, and stability greatly.

The phantom images of stereo exist between two loudspeakers, and up

to 15° beyond. Phantom imaging is more complex in surround. It is com-

posed of primary and secondary images.

There are ﬁ ve primary phantom image locations existing between adjacent

pairs of speakers in surround. These images tend to be the most stable and

reliable between systems and playback environments.

Many secondary phantom images are possible as well. These can appear

between speaker pairs that are not adjacent. These images contain incon-

sistencies in spectral information and are less stable. Implied are different

distance locations for these images, as the trajectories between the pairs

of speakers are closer to the listener position. These closer locations do

not materialize in actual practice. The distance location of these images are

actually pushed away somewhat by the diminished timbral clarity of these

images.

When we consider locations caused by various groupings of three or four

loudspeakers, placement options for phantom images get even more

complex.

Phantom images can be of greatly different sizes in surround. They can range

from completely surrounding the listener with a spread image of enormous

size, to a small and precisely deﬁ ned point source. Point sources and nar-

row spread images are common in current music productions, especially

in the front sound ﬁ eld. The center channel has changed imaging on the

traditional front sound stage tremendously. Images are often more deﬁ ned

in their locations and narrower in size than in two-channel recordings.

The Aesthetic and Artistic Elements of Sound in Audio Recordings

Figure 2-3

Phantom

images in pairs of

surround speakers.

Adjacent Pair Phantom Images (Primary)

Non Adjacent Pair Phantom Images (Secondary)

Ls Rs

Distance in Surround

Distance cues, of course, remain a product of timbral detail, with some reli-

ance on environmental cues. The enhanced presence of ambience causes

surround to more readily draw the listener into making inaccurate judg-

ments of distance cues. Sounds are often perceived as further away than

is accurate, largely because of an awareness of extra or enhanced environ-

ment information. The listener is drawn toward ambience and away from

an awareness of timbral detail.

The depth of sound stage is extended all around the listener as well. The

listener is able to perceive distance in all directions, and these cues can be

present in surround recordings. This provides for creative opportunities not

possible in stereo, but should be approached with reservation.

First, we know listeners accept sound stages of great depth in the front

sound ﬁ eld. They easily imagine they are viewing something with propor-

tions out of their physical conﬁ nes. Listeners are not prepared to perceive

sounds from the side and rear in the same way. When presented with sim-

ilar materials from side and rear locations, listeners can be reluctant to

place sounds in or behind walls (even after they have been observed and

recognized at those locations). The same cues presented in a musically dif-

ferent way to envelop the listener in the space may allow this greater depth

to be perceived.

Chapter 2

Second, phantom images from the side and rear are inherently ﬁ lled with

phase anomalies of the listening room. This can cause a lack of timbral

deﬁ nition and detail, and distort distance cues. Further, it is also common

for surround systems to give different timbral qualities to any instrument

panned across its different speaker locations. These timbre changes often

translate into distance changes and blur distance location imaging.

Finally, involuntary head movement contributes to our natural localization

process for acoustic sound sources. While this instinct has allowed our spe-

cies to survive and evolve, it may well lead to a sense of apprehension in the

listener. When presented with sounds from behind, the ﬁ ght or ﬂ ight instinct

can be triggered, and thus distract the listener or create discomfort.

Environmental Characteristics and Surround Sound

Environmental characteristics can be directed to the listener from every

direction in a very natural manner. This will immerse the listener in the cues

and provide the life-like experience of being present in the space where the

recording was made. Spaciousness can be presented by both two-channel

and ﬁ ve-channel systems to portray a sense of space, but only surround

systems can provide the sensation of being there within the performance.

At present, environmental characteristics are mostly used in ways similar

to stereo recordings. The characteristics of the perceived performance envi-

ronment and of individual sound sources are crafted to shape the musical-

ity of the recordings. One exception is fully or partially immersing the lis-

tener in the ambiance of a source’s host environment, while localizing the

source in a speciﬁ c location elsewhere (usually in the front sound ﬁ eld).

The inherent qualities of environmental characteristics remain unchanged,

except for changes in the direction(s) of the arrival of reﬂ ected sound. This

itself is a great difference, as the fusing of environmental characteristics

and direct sound can become challenged, with a variety of results such as

enlarged images, unnatural effects (perhaps pleasing), distracting reﬂ ec-

tions, and many more. This is especially apparent when environment cues

are sent to only a few channels and do not surround the listener; this can

lead to many different illusions. The environmental cues of individual sound

sources may be perceived as separated from the direct sound, may be used

to enhance imaging and space within space illusions, and many other alter-

natives exist for this new dimension. This new set of illusions makes the

perceived performance environment’s tendency to bind all of the spaces of

the individual sound sources together even more important. The perceived

performance environment will continue to provide an important context

for the recording and a critical point of reference.

The album

Brothers in Arms by Dire Straits provides a number of examples

from these concepts. During the introduction to second track “Money for

The Aesthetic and Artistic Elements of Sound in Audio Recordings

Nothing,” an arpeggiated synthesizer sound revolves around the listener

slowly four times, between 0:15 and 1:15. The sound stage surrounds the

listener with a slight sense of envelopment, the ﬁ rst synthesizer sound

(with some string traits) ﬁ lls the left front through left rear of the sound

stage, the vocal and soprano saxophone parts provide important front-cen-

ter sources that vary in size and have a small amount of motion, and a syn-

thesized bass part creates a stable rear-center image. Drums enter at 1:12 to

anchor the listener’s attention to the front sound stage and this is gradually

reinforced as the guitar enters quietly at 1:26; the solo guitar at 1:36 clearly

establishes the front center as the primary sound-stage location of the song

before being joined there by the drums (1:48) and lead vocal (2:04), sup-

ported by ambience in the surrounds. The listener then is clearly observing

the front sound stage and sources are no longer around their position.

The third song, “Walk of Life,” presents a sound stage that surrounds the

listener, with the listener sitting within the ensemble (sound stage). The

ﬁ nal song, “Brothers in Arms,” completely envelops the listener during the

storm sounds and musical materials of the introduction, which clear dra-

matically for the exposed lead vocal (front center) of the ﬁ rst verse.

Conclusion

With the recording process, it is possible for any of the artistic elements of

sound to be varied in considerable detail. In so doing, all artistic elements

can be shaped for artistic purposes and used to create musical ideas. As all

elements of sound can be varied by roughly equal amounts, it is possible

for any element to play an important role in a piece of music. We commonly

see this practice in today’s music productions.

The artistic elements are used in very traditional roles in certain musical

works and types of recording productions, and in very new ways in other

works. These new ways the artistic elements are used tend to emphasize

aspects of sound that cannot be controlled in acoustic performances. The

aesthetic/artistic elements unique to audio recording (especially sound

quality and spatial properties) are commonly used to support and shape

musical ideas. Different musical relationships and sound properties can

exist in audio recordings rather than in acoustic music. Knowing and con-

trolling these elements gives the recordist the opportunity to contribute to

the creative process and the act of making music.

The potentials of the artistic elements to convey the musical message, the

musical message itself, and the characteristics and limitations of the lis-

tener are explored in the following chapter.

Chapter 2

Exercises

The following exercise should be practiced until you are comfortable with the

material covered.

Exercise 2-1

General Musical Balance and Performance Intensity Observations

1. Listen carefully to “Penny Lane” by The Beatles. Follow the ﬂ utes, piccolo,

and piccolo trumpet parts to observe the conﬂ icting levels/cues cited in

the discussion above.

2. In succeeding hearings, ﬁ nd other instances where musical balance is at

a different loudness than the performance intensity information of the

instruments’ sound qualities.

3. Listen again, while focusing attention on a speciﬁ c instrument or voice

you know well; follow that sound source carefully throughout the song,

to make some general observations of performance intensity cues.

4. Listen again and note the actual loudness of that instrument/voice in

relation to the other sound sources.

5. Finally, listen again for how these relationships change between major

sections of the song (i.e., between verse and chorus).

3 The Musical Message

and the Listener

This chapter will discuss the content of the musical message, and how the

aesthetic and artistic elements function in communicating the message of a

piece of music. The listener’s ability to correctly interpret the sounds of the

musical message largely determines their understanding of the intended

artistic meaning of the music. The factors that limit the listener’s ability to

effectively interpret the artistic elements of sound into the intended musi-

cal message (or meaning of the music) will be explored; the listener as

audience member, and as audio professional, will be contrasted.

Today’s recordist can do much to shape music and is often a key person in

the creative process. This chapter is intended to provide some insight into

what is created and shaped when music is recorded.

The Musical Message

The message of a piece of music is related to the many purposes or func-

tions of music. Each different purpose that music serves requires a different

approach to listening. The approach will bring some aspect into the center of

our attention or the center of our experience. As will be covered more thor-

oughly later, we listen to music with various levels of attention. This strongly

impacts the listening experience. At the extremes, the listener will be focused

and intent on extracting certain speciﬁ c types of information (active listen-

ing); conversely their attention will be focused on some activity other than

the music (eating, a conversation, a dentist’s drill), with the listener perhaps

not actually conscious of the music (passive listening). How the listener

approaches the act of listening impacts the success of the music reaching

the listener. The intended purpose and message of the music successfully

reaches the listener only when the listener is appropriately receptive.

Chapter 3

The purpose of a piece of music and associated characteristics of the musi-

cal message may take the forms of (1) conceptual communication, (2) por-

traying an emotive state, (3) aesthetic experience, and (4) utilitarian func-

tions. The purposes are by no means exclusive; many pieces of music use

different functions simultaneously, or at different points in time.

Music that includes a text, such as a song, will communicate other con-

cepts. These works may tell a story, deliver the author’s impressions of an

experience, present a social commentary, etc. Music is used as a vehicle to

deliver the tangible ideas of the author/composer. The interplay between

the music and the drama of the text is often an important contributor to the

total experience of these works.

It is difﬁ cult for music alone (without words) to communicate speciﬁ c con-

cepts, but it is possible. Often written works portray certain subjects with-

out a text. The listener can associate sounds in music to their experiences

with a subject if a connection can be made. The subjects of such works

are often general in nature, such as Ludwig van Beethoven’s “Pastoral”

Symphony No. 6.

Certain concepts are associated with certain speciﬁ c or types of musical

materials (types of movie music, musical ideas associated with certain

individuals or certain landscapes, etc.). These are exceptional cases where

music alone can communicate speciﬁ c concepts, with the aid of associa-

tions drawn from the listener’s past experiences. It is easy to imagine a

Western chase scene, or an impending shark attack, when listening to cer-

tain pieces of music—after one has heard the music and seen the action

together enough times.

Music communicates emotions easily. One of the reasons many people

listen to music is for emotional escape, relief, or a journey to another place.

Music may portray a speciﬁ c mood, incite a speciﬁ c emotional response

from the listener, or create a more general and hard to deﬁ ne (yet convinc-

ing) feeling or emotive impression. The composer of the music draws from

the past experiences of the listener to shape their emotive reactions to the

material. This is found—at least to some extent—in all music. Works of this

nature may include a text, or not.

Music may be an aesthetic experience. The perception of the relationships

of the musical materials alone, without the associations of concepts or

emotive states, may be the vehicle for the musical message. Music has

the ability to communicate on a level that is separate and distinct from

the verbal (conceptual) or the emotional. Music without words, without

emphasis on the emotional level, can be tremendously successful in com-

municating a message of great substance. Music (as all of the arts) can

reach beyond the human experience; ideas that cannot be verbally deﬁ ned

or represented as an emotional experience can be clearly communicated.

Abstract concepts may be clearly communicated; the human spirit may

reach beyond reality, to loftier ideals. Some people have been so moved

The Musical Message and the Listener

as to compare the aesthetic appreciation of a substantial work of art to the

impressions of religious experience. Works of Johann Sebastian Bach such

as the

Brandenburg Concertos or the Cello Suites are excellent examples of

this type of music, from the multitude that encompass hundreds of years of

history and nearly all of the world’s cultures.

Music serves other functions. It is used to reinforce or accompany other

art forms (motion pictures, musical theater, dance, video art), to enhance

the audio and visual media (television, multimedia, radio, advertisements),

and to ﬁ ll dead air in every-day experiences (supermarkets, elevators, etc.).

In these instances, music is present to support dramatic or conceptual

materials, to take the listener’s attention away from some other sounds or

activities (a dentist’s ofﬁ ce), or to make an environment more desirable (a

restaurant, an automobile).

The complexity of the musical materials is often directly related to the func-

tion of the music. When music is the most important aspect of the listener’s

experience, the musical material may be more complex—as the listener will

devote more effort to deciphering the materials. When the music is playing

a supportive role, the materials are often less sophisticated and are directly

related to the primary aspect of the listener’s experience. When music is

being used to cover undesirable noises or to ﬁ ll a void of silence that would

otherwise be ignored, the musical materials are often very simple, easily

recognized, and easily heard without requiring the listener’s attention.

Musical Form and Structure

Within the human experiences of time and space, nothing exists without

shape or form. Music is no exception. Pieces of music have

form as a glob-

al quality, as an overall concept and essence.

Pieces of music can be conceptualized as an overall quality. It is the human

perception of form that provides the impression of a global quality that

crystallizes the entire work into a single entity. Form is the piece of music

as if perceived, in its entirety, in an instant; it is the substance and shape

that is perceived from conceptualizing the whole.

Form is the global shape of a piece of music together with the fundamental

concepts and expressions (emotions) it is communicating. It is the sum that

is shaped from the interactions of its component parts. Form is a single con-

cept and essence of the piece, given shape by structure; it is comprised of

component parts that are the materials of the piece of music. The materials

of the music and their interrelationships provide the

structure of the work.

The structure of a work is the architecture of its musical materials. Struc-

ture includes the characteristics of the musical materials coupled with a

hierarchy of the interrelationships of the musical materials, as they function

to shape the work. The artistic elements of sound function to provide the

Chapter 3

musical materials with their unique character, as will be later discussed. All

musical materials are related by structure.

The hierarchy of musical materials is the listener’s perception of a general

framework of the materials. The hierarchy provides an interrelationship of

the materials (with their varying levels of importance) to one another, and to

the musical message as a whole. Within the hierarchy of musical structure:

• all musical materials and artistic elements will have a greater impor-

tance to the musical message than other materials or elements (except

the least signiﬁ cant);

• all sections or ideas in the music will have greater importance over oth-

ers (except the least signiﬁ cant);

• all musical materials are subparts of other, more signiﬁ cant musical

materials (except the most signiﬁ cant materials).

Further, the hierarchy of the musical structure organizes musical materials into

patterns, and patterns of patterns. In this way, relationships are established

between the subparts of a work and to the work as a whole. The hierarchy

is such that any time span may contain any number of smaller time-spans,

or be contained within any number of larger time spans; musical material at

any level may be related to material at any other level of the hierarchy.

Figure 3-1

Form and

structure in music.

Form

Major Divisions: A B A

Structure

Major Divisions: Verse1 Chorus Verse2

tonal centers: I V V I

Subdivisions at / \ //\\

• intermediate levels:

• sub-levels:

phrases: a a' b c d c d' a' a b'

motives: / \ / \ / \ / \ / \\ / \ / \ / \\ / \

melodic

rhythmic

accomp patterns

harmonic progression:

instrumentation: #1. solo voice, guitar, #2. solo voice, guitar, Ensemble Ensemble

bass, complete bass, kybd, #1. #2.

trap set background vocals,

cymbals

Nontraditional artistic elements may function at any structural division and subdivision of the hierarchical

level to create patterns & rhythms:

Dynamic Contour Pitch Density Sound Quality

Stereo Location Distance Location Environmental Characteristics

Primary and secondary elements are present throughout the structural hierarchy as Sound Events and

Sound Objects.

Interrelationships of materials take place at all levels of the hierarchy and between artistic elements.

The Musical Message and the Listener

A multitude of possibilities exists for unique musical structures, supporting

very similar musical forms. The innumerable popular songs that have been

written during the past few decades are evidence of this great potential for

variation. Most of the songs have many similarities in their structures, but

they also have many signiﬁ cant differences. The materials that comprise

the works may be very different, but the materials work towards establish-

ing an overall shape (form) that is quite similar between songs.

Many songs share similar forms. Their overall conceptions are very simi-

lar, although the materials of the music and the interrelationships of those

materials may be strikingly different. Form is an overall design and concep-

tion that may be constructed of a multitude of materials and relationships.

Musical materials can be changed to dramatically alter the structure of a

piece of music without altering its form. Many different structures can lead

to the same overall design and portray the same basic artistic statement

that creates form.

Musical Materials

As music moves and unfolds through time, the mind grasps the musical

message through the act of understanding the meaning and signiﬁ cance

of the progression of sounds. During this progression of sounds, the mind

is drawn to certain artistic elements (that create the characteristics of the

musical materials). We perceive the

musical materials as small patterns

(small musical ideas, often called motives or gestures), and group the small

patterns into related larger patterns. The listener remembers the patterns,

together with their associations to larger and smaller patterns (perceiving

the structural hierarchy). In order for the listener to remember patterns,

the listener must recognize some aspect of the organization of a pattern or

some of the materials that comprised a pattern(s).

The use of contrast, repetition, and variation of patterns throughout the

structure creates logic and coherence in the music. Several general ways

in which musical materials are used and developed should make clear the

multitude of possibilities. Materials are contrasted with other materials at

the same and different hierarchical levels (above and below). Materials are

repeated immediately or later in time, at the same or different hierarchi-

cal levels. Materials are varied by adding or deleting portions of an idea,

by altering a portion of an idea, or perhaps by transposing an idea to dif-

ferent artistic elements (such as melodic ideas becoming rhythmic ideas;

harmonic motion becoming dynamic motion).

A balance of similarities and differences within and between the musical

materials is needed for successfully engaging music. A musical work will

not communicate the desired message if this balance is not effectively pre-

sented to, or understood by, the listener.

Chapter 3

The listener remembers the context in which the patterns were presented

as well as the patterns themselves. Some patterns will draw the listener’s

attention and be perceived as being more important than other patterns—

these are the

primary musical materials. Other patterns will be perceived

as being subordinate; these

secondary materials will somehow enhance

the presentation of the primary materials by their presence and activity

in the music. The secondary materials that accompanied the patterns (or

primary materials) are also remembered as individual entities (capable of

being recognized without the primary musical idea) and as being associ-

ated with the particular musical idea (patterns).

The primary materials are traditionally: melody (with related melodic frag-

ments or motives) and (extra-musically) any text, or lyrics of the music.

The secondary materials are traditionally: accompaniment passages, bass

lines, percussion rhythms, harmonic progressions, and tonal centers.

Secondary materials may also be dynamic contour, pitch density, timbre

development, stereo/surround location, distance location, or environmen-

tal characteristics.

The secondary materials usually function to support the primary musical

ideas. It is possible to have any number of equal primary musical ideas. The

potential groupings of primary and secondary musical ideas, in creating a

single structural hierarchy, are limitless. Consider any number of second-

ary ideas (of varying degrees of importance in their support of the primary

musical idea or ideas) that may coexist in a musical texture, with any num-

ber of related or unrelated primary musical ideas.

Musical materials are given their unique characters by the states and values

of the aesthetic/artistic elements of sound. The artistic elements of sound

function to shape and deﬁ ne the musical materials.

The Relationships of Artistic Elements

and Musical Materials

Musical ideas are also composed of

primary elements and secondary ele-

ments

. The primary elements are the aesthetic and artistic elements of

sound that directly contribute to the basic shape or characteristics of a

musical idea. The secondary elements are those aspects of the sound that

assist, enhance, or support the primary elements.

It is possible (and in fact common) to have more than one primary element

and more than one secondary element contributing to the basic character

of a musical idea. Primary elements exhibit changes in states and values

that provide the most signiﬁ cant characteristics of the musical material.

The secondary elements provide support in deﬁ ning or in providing move-

ment to the primary elements.

The Musical Message and the Listener

At all levels of the structural hierarchy, musical materials (primary and

secondary musical ideas) are made up of primary and secondary artistic

elements. Therefore, it is possible for a certain element of sound to be a

primary element on one level of the hierarchy, and a secondary element on

another level. This is not an uncommon situation. For example, a change

in dynamic level of a drum roll might have primary signiﬁ cance at the hier-

archical level of the individual sound source; at the same point in time but

at the hierarchical level of the composite sound of the entire ensemble,

changes in dynamics are insigniﬁ cant to the communication of the musical

message, with pitch changes being of primary importance.

All of the artistic elements of sound have the potential to function as the

primary elements of the musical material. They have the potential to be the

central carriers of the musical idea. Likewise, all of the artistic elements of

sound have the potential to function as secondary elements of the musical

material, and have the potential of functioning in supportive roles in rela-

tion to conveying the musical message. This concept of

equivalence will be

thoroughly explored.

In most music, pitch is the central element or the primary carrier of the

musical message. The unique sound qualities of recording usually appear

in the supportive roles of music, much more than as the primary elements.

Most often, current production practice will use the unique artistic elements

of recordings (such as the stereo location) to support or enhance the prima-

ry message (or perhaps to assist in deﬁ ning an individual sound source).

Rarely do the new sound resources function as the primary element of the

primary musical idea, though this is entirely possible.

The new musical possibilities using all artistic elements can create con-

vincing musical ideas when they are used as the primary carriers of the

musical material. Current practice is likely to continue its gradual change

towards further emphasis of these new artistic elements of sound unique

to recording. It is important to recognize that the potential exists for any

artistic element of sound to be the primary carrier of the musical material.

The potential exists for any of the artistic elements of sound to function in

support of any component of the musical idea. All of the artistic elements

are equally capable of change, and that change can be perceived almost

equally well in all of the artistic elements.

Traditionally, a break down of primary and secondary elements of a piece

of music (with associated musical materials identiﬁ ed) would commonly

appear similarly to Table 3-1. Pitch is the primary element and is support-

ed by rhythm and dynamics. The musical materials are differentiated by

sound-quality differences.

In many current recordings, a similar (and equally common) outline might

appear as Table 3-2. While pitch remains a primary element, rhythm and

sound-quality changes are equally important in delivering the musical

message. Sound quality, in particular, has become more important with

Chapter 3

recording technology. Pitch, dynamics, and rhythm still play supportive

roles, with spatial properties assisting sound quality in differentiating the

musical ideas.

Table 3-1

Traditional Hierarchy of Artistic Elements

Primary Elements Secondary Elements

Pitch—melodic line #1 Pitch—harmony

Pitch—melodic line #2 Pitch—accompaniment patterns

Dynamics—contour for expression

Rhythm—supporting melody

Sound Quality—instrument selection

Table 3-2

Common Hierarchy in Current Music Productions

Primary Elements Secondary Elements

Pitch—melodic line #1 Pitch—harmony

Pitch—melodic line #2 Pitch—accompaniment patterns

Rhythm—recurring patterns Dynamics—contour changes without

changes in timbre;

accents; contour for expression

Sound Quality—changing texture Rhythm—supporting melody

Sound quality—instrument selection; expres-

sion changes without dynamic changes

Spatial properties—diverse host environ-

ments for each instrument; rhythmic pulses

in different stereo locations; sound-stage

location of instruments widely varied

Equivalence and the Expression of Musical Ideas

Throughout Western music history, pitch (in its levels and relationships)

has been the most important artistic element of music. The pitch relation-

ships are utilized to create melodies, harmonies, accompaniment patterns,

and tonal systems. Pitch has functioned as the central element in nearly

all music that has descended from or has been signiﬁ cantly inﬂ uenced by

the European tradition. Pitch is the primary artistic element in much of the

music we know and is the perceived parameter that contains most of the

information that is signiﬁ cant to the communication of the message of a

piece of music.

Western music might have developed differently. While pitch relationships

have been used as the primary generator of musical materials much more

than other artistic elements, this need not have been so. Indeed, musics of

other cultures use the artistic elements of music in signiﬁ cantly different

ways. Some cultures emphasize other artistic elements, such as rhythm,

and many incorporate very different types of pitch relationships.

The Musical Message and the Listener

It is difﬁ cult to justify pitch’s traditional prominence in the expression of

musical ideas. While it is true that pitch is the perception of a primary attri-

bute of the waveform (frequency, with the other attribute being amplitude),

that of all the elements it is the most easily detected in many states and

values, that pitch is the only artistic element that can be readily perceived

as multiples of itself (the octave repetition of pitch levels, and the percep-

tions of real and tonal transposition of pitch patterns), these factors do not

cause pitch to be a more prominent element than the others.

Our ability to perceive pitch is not signiﬁ cantly more reﬁ ned (if at all) than

our abilities to perceive the other parameters of sound. This is especially

true of those parameters that utilize less precise pitch-related percepts

(timbre, environmental characteristics, texture, and pitch density).

It follows that the artistic elements of sound other than pitch are equally

capable of contributing to the communication of musical ideas.

This capability is being realized in the recordings of today’s creative art-

ists. In fact, this has been going on for quite some time, as the examples

of recordings by The Beatles should indicate. This is occurring without

conscious planning, but rather as a natural exploration of available sound

relationships. Musicians (recordists, performers, composers, and produc-

ers) instinctively ﬁ nd roles for the unique artistic elements in recordings.

The artistic elements that were not available, or that were underutilized,

in traditional music performed in traditional contexts, are functioning in

signiﬁ cant ways in modern music productions.

The concept that all of the artistic elements of sound have an equal poten-

tial to carry the most signiﬁ cant musical information is

equivalence.

The states of the various components of the aesthetic and artistic elements

of sound will make up the musical material. As such, they will function

in primary or secondary roles of importance in the communication of the

musical message. It is possible for any artistic element to function in any

of the primary and secondary roles of shaping musical materials, and of

generating the communication of the musical message. These are under

the control of the recordist and have been commonly used to shape the

musicality of music productions for years. Bringing these musical ideas

into acceptance by the listener will require ﬁ nesse and control of craft by

the recordist.

Equivalence is also a framework for listening. It is a point of departure that

reminds the recordist that any element or aspect of sound can change or

can demand attention. Any change in the sound must be detected by the

recordist and understood—no matter the signiﬁ cance to the music. Any

aspect of sound might require the attention of the recordist at any moment

during the listening experience. Equivalence provides this guidance and

awareness.

Chapter 3

Text as Song Lyrics

When a text is present in a piece of music, it is a signiﬁ cant addition to

the musical experience. Through the text, language communicates a con-

cept or describes a drama within the work. Further, the sound resources of

the language will be exploited to enhance the aesthetic experience of the

music. Songs are often relatively short musical pieces that contain a text

(usually a single, rather short text). The song is the most common form of

music today.

The text, or lyrics, of a song is a poem set to music. The text’s elements are

arranged in some sort of structure (as the structural construction of music),

and the concepts of the text will create formal areas that are conceived as a

single entity, as well as an overall idea and meaning of the text.

The lyrics of songs are constructed in many of the same ways as traditional

poetry, written for its own sake and not intended to be set to music. The pri-

mary differences between the traditional poetry and poetry as song lyrics

lie (1) in the repetitions of certain stanzas or phrases of the poem (unaltered

or with slight changes), (2) in the careful crafting of the meters of the text,

the rhythms of the lines, and the timing of the conceptual ideas of the text

often found in song lyrics, and (3) in the sound qualities of the words that

can be chosen to enhance the musical setting.

Literary Meaning

The literary meaning of the text brings the dimensions of verbal communi-

cation of ideas and concepts to the musical experience. Songs have been

written on a multitude of subjects from common, everyday small occur-

rences to the highest of human ideals. The lyrics of a song might present a

story line, or it might be a description of an event or the author’s feelings

about some aspect of the world around them. The text might be a presenta-

tion of the social-political philosophies of the author, or it might be a love

song. The potential subjects for a song are perhaps limitless.

The presentation of the text’s literary meaning is often enhanced by sub-

ordinate phrases of text segments that create new dimensions in the text.

These subordinate ideas provide the turns of phrase or concepts that enrich

the meaning of the text as a whole. The turning of the phrase allows for dif-

ferent interpretations of the meaning of certain ideas, at times different

meanings to different individuals (or groups of people) depending on the

experiences of the audience.

The potential for different interpretations allows for some (or much) ambi-

guity and intrigue in the text. The ambiguity may be clariﬁ ed with a study

of the central concepts of the song lyrics. Reevaluating a well-crafted text

will often allow the listener to ﬁ nd new relationships of ideas or meanings

of materials that enhance the experience of the song for the listener (or

The Musical Message and the Listener

recordist). This is common in songs from many styles of music and lends a

considerable dimension to the musical experience.

The concepts used to enhance the literary meaning of the work may or may

not be directly related to the central ideas of the text. These ancillary concepts

may take many forms and are important in shaping the presentation of the

communicative aspects of poetry. A study of poetry, or of the setting of texts

to music, may be very appropriate for the individual recordist, but is out of

the scope of this writing. Some general observations are instead offered.

Structure and Form of Song Lyrics

The structure of the text exists on many levels, similar to the hierarchy of

musical structure. The conceptual meanings of the text and the sounds and

rhythms of the text, do not allow for a clear division between the structural

aspects of the text and the form-related aspects of the text. The structure of

the text should address the sound qualities of the text and its organization

of mechanical parts. The

form of the text should address the conceptual,

often with a recurring concept or theme, a refrain (as the song’s chorus).

Some cross-over will occur between the two areas: (1) the structure of the

text’s presentation may alter the statement’s meaning, and (2) concepts

can, at times, function as structural subparts. These are the result of the

ways we conceptualize in verbal communication, and the previous experi-

ences and social-cultural conditioning of the individual.

The components of the structure of a text will be major divisions of the

materials of the text, and the subdivisions they contain. The materials that

comprise the components are words, with all of their associated mean-

ings, and the thoughts and feelings they invoke from within the individual.

Words will be related by their sound qualities, rhyme schemes, rhythms

and meters of groups of words, repetitions of words and words sounds,

and by tonal and dynamic vocal inﬂ ections. Meanings of the words, rep-

etitions of words with different associated meanings, phrases created by

the concepts (sentences), and groupings of phrases by subject matter or

concepts are also used.

This format will not necessarily be directly transferable to all text settings,

but these concepts can provide a meaningful point of departure.

Chapter 3

Figure 3-2

Form and

structure of song

lyrics.

Form

Major Divisions: A B A

Subdivisions

phrases: a b c d e d f g h i

concepts:

Structure

Major Divisions: Stanza #1 Refrain Stanza #2

Sub-grouping by function: beginning of plot author's impressions plot continued

Subdivisions

• groupings of phrases by:

rhythm

rhyme scheme

word usage

sound quality

• lines by:

rhythm

rhyme scheme

word usage

sound quality

• words by:

repetition

varied meaning

tonal inflection

dynamic inflection

Texts and Music in Combination

The structures of the text and the music interact in the overall perception of

the song. They are perceived as being interrelated. They serve to enhance

each other. The structures may complement one another, or they may serve

as areas of contrast, with the text and the music grouped in overlapping

segments, unfolding over time.

Both complementary and contrasting relationships of the structural ele-

ments of the text and the music exist in most works. The two play off one

another, creating a sense of drama between the text and the music.

The relationships of structures create our impression of form: our con-

ceptualization of grasping the essence of the entire work in an instant of

realization. Within our impression of form as the overall conception of the

work, we conceptualize points of climax and points of repose; we concep-

tualize the characteristics of design and shape of the materials that create

the movement from one important event, or moment, to the next.

We recognize the shape and design of the work as it is represented in our

perception of the signiﬁ cant moments of the work, and in the movement

between the moments as they unfold over time.

The relationships of the musical materials create structure in a piece of

music. Our perception of the design of structure is our conception of form.

The structure of a piece of music may be altered signiﬁ cantly without

The Musical Message and the Listener

altering its form. Even when the primary musical materials and the struc-

ture of a work are signiﬁ cantly altered, two very different interpretations of

the same piece of music will be perceived as being similar when the form

(or overall conception) of both performances are similar.

Contrast, for example, two performances of the song, “Every Little Thing,” the

original by The Beatles (

Beatles for Sale, 1964) and a cover by Yes (Yes, 1969).

The overall shape of the piece is not dramatically altered, but the structures

of the two performances are quite different. Great differences exist between

the lengths of sections, as well as the treatments of the basic musical materi-

als and how they are organized. Few people would argue that both perfor-

mances are of the same piece of music. Few people could not perceive dra-

matic changes in the structure and materials of the two different versions.

The reader is encouraged to perform the exercise in identifying the struc-

ture of a song found at the end of this chapter, to compile a time line similar

to those in Figure 3-3.

Figure 3-3

“Every

Little Thing” as

performed by The

Beatles and by Yes.

aa' b a

cdc

d a'' a''' b'' c d c

1357911 15 19 23 27 31 35 39 43 47 51 55 59 63 67 71 75

Yes - "Every Little Thing"

The Beatles - "Every Little Thing"

77 81

85 89 93 97 101 105 109 113 117 121 125 129 133 137 141 145

aa' b a

c d c d' e f a

c d c d' e a a b a a b c d c d' e

measures of (except as marked)

Verse 1 Chorus 1 Verse 2 Chorus 2 Chorus 3Instrumental Verse

(A material)

Bridge

148 152 156 160 164 168 172 176 180 184 188 192

Bridge Verse 3 (2 repeated) Chorus 4 Coda

B A/B

c d c d' e

measures of

1357911 15 19 23 27 31 35 39 43 47 51 55 59

Verse 1 Chorus 1 Verse 2 Chorus 2 Coda

Instru

Verse

A/B

Chorus 3

Introduction

a''

a''''

a''

(silent beat 1)

Introduction

The Listener

The audience member and the various audio professionals will have very

different levels of listening expertise and usually dramatically different pur-

poses for the listening process.

The recordist will have knowledge of the recording process (that which

appears in Part Three, and more), the states of sound in audio recording, the

materials of music, and of the hearing mechanism (previously discussed).

Chapter 3

Further, the recordist will have spent considerable time acquiring the listen-

ing skills for the evaluation of recorded and reproduced music, and sound

that will be covered in Part Two. The recordist is often equally skilled at

evaluating the technical integrity of the audio signal (perceived parameters

of sound), and at evaluating the artistic elements of sound and the materi-

als of the musical message, also to be covered in Part Two.

The

lay listener is the audience for a recording. The lay listener will listen

by relying primarily on their previous listening experiences. They will usu-

ally have little or no formal training. The lay listener may be listening for

some meaning in the music and be concerned with the relationship of the

musical (or literary) message to their personal preferences of musical style,

and musical and dramatic meanings. They may be listening for the sensual

aspects of the music or be listening for the aesthetic experience.

The listener will likely be listening for pleasure and be concerned about

enjoyment. People most often listen for entertainment, and perhaps for

escape or enrichment.

While an album might be carefully crafted as a complete experience from

beginning to end, most people will not sit in a position equidistant from

two loudspeakers for about an hour listening to a CD. Most people do not

dedicate time to focus their attention to music listening, or to sitting in one

place while listening (unless they are driving, and then we hope they are

not listening too intently). This is simply not the normal listening practice

of people today.

Whatever the purpose for listening to music, the listener will not listen in

the same way or for the same sound qualities as the recordist. Nor should

they. The audience member should not be expected to listen in the same

way as the recordist. Their purpose for listening is very different. It is neces-

sary, however, for the recordist to deliver the recording in such a way that

it can be understood.

The receiver and the quality of the communication limit the success of any

communication. The receiver (listener) must be able to accurately process

information (recording/music) for communication to occur. Humans are

limited in their abilities to understand the content and/or meaning of what

they perceive. These limitations are primarily the result of the listener’s

experience and knowledge, but are also dependent upon the listener’s

degree of interest in the material, intellect, and physical condition. The same

material (music recording) will yield different information to different listen-

ers (or to the same listener on different hearings), depending on knowledge,

experience, analytic reasoning, social-cultural conditioning, expectations of

context, attentiveness, and the condition of the hearing mechanism.

In crafting recordings for an audience, the recordist might need/wish to

directly consider the listener (audience). An examination of these factors

will provide a realistic assessment of a target audience and perhaps allow

The Musical Message and the Listener

the recordist to reach them more readily. These are the conditions that

shape the listeners of recordings.

Knowledge

The listener’s accumulated information related to what is being heard, as

well as of all subjects related to their existence, plays a substantial role in

the understanding of music and sound.

Knowledge allows the listener to

understand a sound, or a musical passage, by relating the experienced

sound material to a body of known information. When the listener has a

body of known information and/or possible circumstances, the music can

be matched against those possibilities. With a match, listeners can then

comprehend (and potentially reason) the meaning of the material.

Knowledge is the amassed body of learned information, or known truths.

The listener can draw on their knowledge to make evaluations and judg-

ments on what is being heard. Knowledge areas related to the understand-

ing of sound (and music) would include acoustics, psychoacoustics, music

theory, music history and literature, language, audio recording theory and

practice, mathematics, physics, engineering, computer science, communi-

cations, and more. The listener can formally and consciously know these

subjects, or they might be more or less intuitively learned through sensitiv-

ity to life’s experiences.

Experience

The listener’s past life experiences are directly related to knowledge. Sound

is experienced. In its conceptualized state, sound becomes experienced

information. A personal knowledge, or experience, of the sound is the

result of the listening process. Prior listening experiences are a resource

that can be drawn from to recognize certain sound events or relationships.

Sounds are mapped into the memory. The listener is better able to retain

sound events in memory when a sound is the same as, or similar to, a

sound that has been previously experienced. The act of listening is itself an

experience, involving the learning of new information from what is going

on in the listener’s “present.” New information is recognized and under-

stood by comparing it with what has been previously experienced.

The type and quantity of listening experiences, and the personal knowledge

gained, will vary signiﬁ cantly between individuals. These listening experienc-

es are signiﬁ cant factors in understanding the messages of music. Different

types of music will communicate different messages and may communicate

the message through different musical styles. Difﬁ culties people experience

in understanding or appreciating different types of music can often be attrib-

uted to a limited experience with a certain type of music. An individual’s lis-

tening experiences may have limited their ability to understand the materials

Chapter 3

(language) of the music, or to appreciate what the music is trying to commu-

nicate. Increased knowledge of a type of music, and/or an increased number

of experiences in listening to the type of music, will increase the listener’s

ability to understand or appreciate the type of music.

Listening experiences are greatly inﬂ uenced by the life environment of the

individual. The social and cultural environment(s) in which the individual

lives, and has experienced, provide opportunities for a certain ﬁ nite num-

ber of listening experiences. Within any environment, certain experiences

will occur much more frequently than others. Certain types of listening

experiences will be very common, and certain types of listening experi-

ences will never occur or occur only rarely.

Social-cultural conditioning will predispose the listener to a certain set of

available previous experiences. People are conditioned by their environ-

ment (social and cultural) to apply meanings to sounds, and to understand

stylized musical relationships. We learn to listen for certain relationships

in musical materials and the artistic elements of sound. For example, the

music of India uses pitch and rhythm in signiﬁ cantly different ways than

American popular music. Individuals from either culture will not readily

understand the meaning or appreciate the subtleties of the music of the

other culture, upon initial hearings.

The application of meanings to sounds is the basis for language. Sounds

have meaning, and can represent ideas. In this manner, a series of short

sounds as narrowly deﬁ ned, isolated ideas can combine (in a prescribed

ordering) to create a complex concept. Communication of simple ideas to

complex thoughts is thus accomplished by language. As we well know, dif-

ferent cultures have strikingly different languages. Some languages have

common elements to other languages, and certain languages have ele-

ments that are largely unique.

Social context also plays a signiﬁ cant role in deﬁ ning language sounds

and meaning. Quite different meanings may be associated with a single

sound, in the same language, by people of the same culture/society. This

most often occurs between different social groups (ethnic origins, religious

beliefs, age groups, etc.), groups of different economic status, and between

geographic locations.

Sounds have meanings associated with their source. A sound produced by

a car horn will invoke in the listener the thought of an automobile, not of

the horn itself. Such referential listening only occurs when the listener has

a certain set of life/listening experiences. Associations between sounds and

their sources are largely dependent upon the listener’s set of life/listening

experiences, as provided by social-cultural environments. One can imagine

living conditions under which an individual might never have experienced

the sound of a car horn (perhaps the nineteenth century). The sound would

not elicit the same response from this person as it would from a modern

urbanite.

The Musical Message and the Listener

The meanings of musical sounds transfer between cultural and social

groups in very similar ways to language sounds.

Social-cultural conditioning creates expectations as to the function of

music. People are conditioned to relate various functions and applications

to certain types of music. Dance, celebration, worship, ceremony, accom-

paniment to visual media, and aesthetic listening are but a few of the func-

tions that music serves in various societies. Each function carries with it

certain expectations for musical style. These expectations are deﬁ ned dif-

ferently in different cultures and societies.

The listener’s life/listening experiences provide the available information

from which they can understand sounds. Social-cultural environment con-

ditions the listener through (1) providing a predominance of certain lis-

tening experiences, (2) providing certain expectations as to the content of

musical materials (the applications of the artistic elements), (3) providing

certain expectations as to the context within which certain types of music

will be heard (in church, in a club, in the street, etc.), (4) providing mean-

ings of association for certain signiﬁ cant sounds (signiﬁ cant sounds being

perhaps a siren, or a falling tree), and (5) providing associations of group

activity for certain types of music (ceremony, dance, group experiences).

While broadcast media have broadened the number of common elements

between social and cultural groups throughout the world, great diversity

still exists among human cultures and societal groups. Social-cultural con-

ditioning must remain a signiﬁ cant factor in our realization of the limita-

tions of the listener. For example, it might be unrealistic to expect the lay

person from China to understand the musical nuance and message of rap

music, just as it might be unrealistic to expect the typical American, subur-

ban 16-year-old to understand the meaning and signiﬁ cance, or to appreci-

ate the aesthetic qualities, of Tibetan chant.

Expectation

Knowledge, experience, and social-cultural conditioning create expecta-

tions

for the listener. The listener will expect to hear certain sounds (or

sequences of sounds) under certain circumstances. They will expect certain

types of sounds to follow what has already been heard. They can expect to

hear materials in certain relationships (melody with certain harmony), and

to hear certain sounds within a given physical environment (one would

not expect to hear a lion sound on a city street). The listener will likewise

expect certain sounds in a given musical context (an operatic vocal tech-

nique would be unexpected in a reggae work) and expect to hear certain

kinds of music in certain social-cultural contexts (the listener will expect to

hear different music in church, movies, dance clubs, etc.).

When listeners are presented with something that is not expected, they

may be surprised if they are able to recognize the material enough to

Chapter 3

understand it and its context, or may be confused if they cannot recognize

the sound or relate the sound to its context. An unexpected sound might

intrigue the listener as a unique turn of a musical idea or as a sound slightly

out of context. Conversely, if unexpected sounds that are also unfamiliar

to the listener are present, they will not be able to understand the sound,

they will not receive the message of the material, and may likely be dissat-

isﬁ ed or frustrated by the listening experience. Among other possibilities,

the listener might have a dislike for the original context of this unexpected

sound, and thus cause this new experience to be unenjoyable.

Expected and unexpected sounds and relationships are balanced within

all musical styles. A musical style is a set of expectations. Certain types of

musical events and relationships are present that provide a musical style

with consistency and a unique character.

Analytical Reasoning

The listener’s knowledge, experience, and analytical reasoning play impor-

tant roles in the understanding of musical messages within various musi-

cal styles. Too many unexpected sounds or situations will result in confu-

sion and frustration on the part of the listener. If expectations are ﬁ lled in

predictable ways, the listener will become bored with the material. They

perceive logic and coherence of the musical materials through a fulﬁ llment

of expectations in the characteristics and functions of the musical materi-

als, coupled with enough unexpected activity to maintain interest.

Listeners use analytical reasoning to extract the meaning of musical mate-

rials, when they are unable to identify the material. Analytical reasoning,

in music listening, is the ability to relate immediate listening experience to

knowledge, in a manner capable of deducing meaningful observations and

information. The ability to perform this type of listening activity is depen-

dent upon intellect, the amount of knowledge the listener is able to draw

from, the listener’s previous experience in performing analytic reasoning

exercises, and the listener’s knowledge of the types of information to extract

from the listening experience. This method of listening works similar skills

as the critical and analytical listening skills addressed in Part Two.

Active and Passive Listening

The level of attentiveness of the listener plays an important role in the

understanding of the musical message. Listener attentiveness and musical

understanding are related to active and passive listening, and to the listen-

er’s interest in the music.

The difference between active and passive listening is the listener’s atten-

tion and involvement.

Passive listening occurs when the listener is not

focused on the listening process, or on the music itself within the listening

The Musical Message and the Listener

experience. Passive listening might ﬁ nd listeners otherwise occupied and

listening to music as a background activity (reading a book, for example).

Alternatively, listeners might be listening to music for reasons other than

understanding. They may be listening for relaxation purposes. Other types

of passive listening include approaching music for its emotive state, or

feeling, or listening to music for its pulse only, such as an accompaniment

to dancing. In all of these cases, the listener is not listening to the musical

materials themselves, and they might not be aware of the music during

certain periods of time. In passive listening the music itself is not the center

of the listener’s attention.

Music is at the center of the listener’s attention in

active listening. Various

levels of detail can be extracted during the active listening process. Among

many possible states, active listening might take the form of listening to

the text and primary melodic lines of a work. It may take the form of follow-

ing the intricacies of motivic development in a Beethoven string quartet, or

of evaluating the characteristics of a sound system. In all cases, the state

of active listening has the listener’s attention, aware of musical materials

or sound quality.

The listener is most likely to be an active listener if they are interested in

the music or have a speciﬁ c reason to be listening carefully. The listener’s

interest in the music may be determined by mood or energy level at the

time of the listening experience but is most often associated with listening

preferences (and the previous experiences that have shaped those prefer-

ences). These preferences lead to the types of music the listener listens to

most often and what they prefer to hear.

Hearing Mechanism Condition

The ﬁ nal variable between individual listeners is the condition of the hear-

ing mechanism. Some individuals have impaired hearing; some have

knowledge of their condition and others do not. The hearing of the individ-

ual might vary from the norm because of a defect at birth, from accidental

damage from physical trauma or prolonged exposure to high sound-pres-

sure levels, or from the natural deterioration caused by the aging process.

The recordist cannot anticipate hearing impairment of the listener, nor cre-

ate recordings that can be heard well by those so unfortunate. It is quite

important, however, that the recordist know the condition of their hearing.

Variation of the individual’s hearing characteristics from normal human hear-

ing is of great importance to the recordist. The recordist must have knowledge

of their own hearing and make use of that information in evaluating sound

in their job function. Signiﬁ cant hearing problems may make a person poor-

ly suited for certain positions in the recording industry. Normally, a recordist

might ﬁ nd they are less sensitive to sound in certain frequency ranges or

that the two ears have different frequency and amplitude sensitivities. This

Chapter 3

information will serve the recording professional well in evaluating sound,

as it will allow them to make adjustments in their work by knowing how

their personal perception is different from the existing sound.

Target Audience

The typical listener envisioned for a speciﬁ c recording project, or piece of

music, is often called a target audience. The target audience for a piece of

music is often determined to help focus a project and to seek a way of pre-

dicting the success of the music in communicating its message. The knowl-

edge, musical and sociological expectations, and the listening experience

of a typical audience member will deﬁ ne the target audience. The music can

then be shaped to conform to the abilities and expectations of the typical

member, thereby increasing the chance it will successfully communicate its

musical message. The goal is to create a recording/song that this deﬁ ned

audience will ﬁ nd engaging and that will be commercially successful.

Conclusion

Recording professionals should not expect people to listen to their record-

ings with undivided attention or with the same level of accomplishment

they have attained. At the same time the recordist must not underestimate

or undervalue the listener. Listeners are often passionate about the music

we record and the music they listen to.

Music audiences feel strongly about “their” music. They are often very pos-

sessive about the type of music they enjoy and the performers they follow.

Music can speak deeply to people and bring people to identify with music

on a very fundamental and personal level. Commentaries about their music

can be perceived as reﬂ ections on themselves. While the listener may not

know much about music or recording, they know what they like—and usu-

ally are willing to tell you about it.

Similarly, listeners are often quick to identify the quality of productions.

Well-crafted and successful recordings are easily identiﬁ ed by listeners,

not for their quality but because they present the musical material in a way

that communicates well and directly to the listener. Further, sound qualities

of the recordings of one type of music will be different from others, and will

draw the listener, or not. The listener may not recognize technical integrity,

but any signal problems will detract from the recording and the listening

experience. Listeners will not miss this. They may not be able to tell what is

wrong but they will recognize that it is not right.

The recordist is in the position to play a central role in the creation of music.

They may use the recording process to shape music performances and the

music itself. This new role for the recordist has been widely recognized

The Musical Message and the Listener

since the early 1960s. While perhaps it is new when we think back over

hundreds of years of music, recordists are currently very much a part of

the creative process of nearly all recordings. With over 40 years of sophisti-

cated practice in crafting sounds through multitrack production and stereo

reproduction, the recordist as an artist is no longer something new.

The more the recordist understands music and the listener, the more likely

it is that they will be in a position to assist the artist in delivering a perfor-

mance and recording of a piece of music that will be successful. To bring the

reader to appreciate some of what is involved with this feat was the goal of

this chapter. It is wished that the recordist would want the listener to ﬁ nd

enjoyment in what was recorded—for the artist’s sake and for the music.

Exercises

The following exercise should be practiced on a variety of pieces of music until

you are comfortable with the material covered.

Exercise 3-1

Structure Exercise

The purpose of this exercise is to create a time line of a song, divided into

major structural divisions and phrases.

1. Select a recording of a song you know reasonably well and prepare a time

line with measures numbered, up to perhaps 100.

2. Listen to the recording to identify where the major sections fall against

the time line. Try following the time line while tapping the pulse of the

song, or conducting. When a major section begins/ends, make a mark

on the time line.

3. After listening to the song, write down the names of those divisions.

Now try ﬁ lling in additional information, such as other verse or chorus

beginning/ending points and phrase lengths.

4. Repeat listening to the recording and writing down the information rec-

ognized.

5. The graph is completed when it includes all of the major structural

divisions, the midlevel structural divisions and the smallest uniform

phrase. Incorporating text information is also helpful.

6. Following the time line while listening may prove helpful in initial studies

in identifying structural divisions. You are encouraged to wait until the

music is stopped before writing observations. Clearly separating the lis-

tening and writing activities will assist you in improving listening skills and

in learning to evaluate sound. This will become increasingly important as

this book progresses.

Part Two

Understanding the Mix:

Developing Listening and

Sound Evaluation Skills

4 Listening and Evaluating Sound

for the Audio Professional

People in the audio industry need to listen to and evaluate sound. Carefully

evaluating sound, for one reason or another, is an integral part of most posi-

tions in the audio industry. Sound must be evaluated in all areas of audio

production, manufacturing, and support. These areas are very diverse. They

may be equipment performance or microphone placements, music mixes

or the technical quality of the signal, or any one of many other possibilities.

Sound is being evaluated by the audio professional in all these cases and

more.

Saying “sound is central to audio” is obvious to the point of sounding triv-

ial. It is equally ironic that the audio and music community has not devel-

oped a way to clearly communicate meaningful information about sound.

No language or vocabulary exists for qualities of sound. Part Two begins

the creation of a means and vocabulary to communicate about sound.

While this book is focused on the artistic roles of the recording profes-

sional, sound evaluation is important to everyone in the industry who lis-

tens to, evaluates, and talks about sound. Part Two of the book can and

should be used by anyone in need of developing the ability to understand,

evaluate, and communicate about sound. It should be a primary objec-

tive of all people in the audio industry to be more sensitive and reliable in

their evaluations of sound. While the term “recordist” will still be used in

Part Two, it should be interpreted to mean “any audio professional” during

discussions of sound evaluation. The sequence of chapters in this part will

present a system for understanding and evaluating sound that will sub-

stantially develop the reader’s ability when mastered.

It is necessary for all people related to the audio industry to be accurate

and consistent in their evaluations of the quality and content of sound

and audio. As we have seen, the previous experience, knowledge, cultural

Chapter 4

conditioning, and expectations of the listener (in this case the audio profes-

sional) have a direct impact on the level of proﬁ ciency at which the listener

is able to evaluate sound. With increased experience in evaluating sound

comes increased skill and accuracy.

The act of listening and the process of evaluating sound can be learned and

greatly reﬁ ned. The following is a presentation of the need for sound evalu-

ation and the listening process, leading to a discussion about how we talk

about sound, and the development of listening and sound evaluation skills.

Why Audio Professionals Need to Evaluate Sound

Audio professionals need to evaluate sound to deﬁ ne what they hear, to

understand what they hear, and to communicate with one another about

sound. These are important aspects of the job functions for almost all peo-

ple in audio.

Recording engineers and producers, obviously, must have well-developed

listening skills because evaluating sound is one of the most important

things they do in their work. The need for highly reﬁ ned skills obvious-

ly holds true for composers and performing musicians, especially those

involved in the audio-recording processes. All audio professionals who lis-

ten to sound share a similar need for these skills. The technical people of

the industry, those involved in artistic roles, and those in manufacturing or

facility design, or product sales and many others, all must share observa-

tions and information about sound.

There are other reasons audio professionals need to evaluate sound in addi-

tion to talking about sound in precise and meaningful terms. The recording’s

sound qualities need to be observed, recognized, and understood to per-

form a great many jobs in the industry. Nearly all positions approach sound

evaluation in a somewhat unique way. In fact, there might be as many rea-

sons (signiﬁ cantly or slightly unique) for evaluating sound as there are job

functions within the multitude of positions in the audio industry.

For the recordist, there are additional beneﬁ ts to sound evaluation, and

some will be discussed in detail in later chapters. These include ways to (1)

keep track of one’s work so that the audio professional can return to those

thoughts/activities in the future, (2) plan recording projects out of the stu-

dio, (3) understand the work and ideas of others, (4) recreate sounds and

musical styles, and many more.

Nearly all people in audio work directly with some aspect of sound. These

aspects might be vastly different, yet these people must communicate

directly and accurately to share information. In order to share information,

sound must ﬁ rst be evaluated and understood by the listener.

Listening and Evaluating Sound for the Audio Professional

Understanding sound begins with perceiving the sound through active

attention. One can then recognize what is happening in the sound or rec-

ognize the nature of the sound, provided the listener has sufﬁ cient knowl-

edge and experience. The listener must know what to listen for (i.e., the

artistic elements of sound) and where to ﬁ nd that information (perhaps a

particular musical part). This recognition can lead to understanding, given

sufﬁ cient information. What is understood can be communicated, with the

presence of a vocabulary to exchange meaningful information that is based

on a common experience.

Talking About Sound

People in the audio industry, as in all industries, work together towards

common goals. In order to achieve those goals, people must communi-

cate clearly and effectively. A vocabulary for communicating speciﬁ c, perti-

nent information about sound quality does not currently exist. People have

been talking about sound for hundreds of years without a vocabulary to

describe their actual perceptions and experiences. Instead, people have

used imprecise terms to associate other perceptions and experiences to

sound— unsuccessfully and inaccurately.

Describing the characteristics of sound quality through associations with

the other senses (through terminology such as “dark,” “crisp,” or “bright”

sounds) is of little use in communicating precise and meaningful informa-

tion about the sound source. “Bright” to one person may be associated with

a narrow, prominent band of spectral activity around 15 kHz throughout the

sound source’s duration. To another person the term may be associated with

fast transient response in a broader frequency band around 8 kHz, and pres-

ent only for the initial third of the sound’s duration. A third person might

easily provide a different, yet an equally valid, deﬁ nition of “bright” within

the context of the same sound. The three people would be using different

criteria of evaluation and would be identifying markedly different charac-

teristics of the sound source, yet the three people would be calling three

potentially quite different sounds the same thing—“bright.” This terminol-

ogy will not communicate speciﬁ c information about the sound and will not

be universally understood. It will not have the same meaning to all people.

Analogies such as “metallic,” “violin-like,” “buzzing,” or “percussive” might

appear to supply more useful information about the sound than the inter-

sensory approach. This is not so. Analogies are, by nature, imprecise. They

compare a given sound quality to a sound the individuals already know. A

common reference between the individuals attempting to communicate is

often absent. Sounds have many possible states of sound quality.

“Violin-like” to one person may actually be quite different to another person.

One person’s reference experience of a “violin” sound may be an historic

instrument built by Stradivarius and performed by a leading classical artist

Chapter 4

at Carnegie Hall. Another person may use the sound of a bluegrass ﬁ ddler,

performing on a locally crafted instrument in the open air, as their reference

for deﬁ ning the sound quality of a “violin.” The sound references are equally

valid for the individuals involved, but the references are far from consistent

and will not generate much common ground for communication. The sound

qualities of the two sounds are strikingly different. The two people will be

referencing different sound characteristics, while using the same term. Cer-

tainly there will be strong similarities between these two instrument sounds,

but there will be great differences in the subtle details of the sound qualities;

it is in these subtle details that quality recordings are created, and where the

skills of the recordist must be drawn. An accurate exchange of important

information will not occur without a clear communication of this detail.

The imprecision of terminology related to sound quality is at its most

extreme when sounds are categorized by mood connotations. Sound

qualities are sometimes described in relation to the emotive response they

invoke in the listener. The communication of sound quality through termi-

nology such as “somber,” for example, will mean very different things to

different people. Such terminology is so imprecise it is useless in commu-

nicating meaningful information about sound.

People can only communicate effectively through the use of common

experiences or knowledge. The sound source itself, as it exists in its physi-

cal dimensions in air, is presently the only common experience between

two or more humans.

As we hear sounds, we make many individualized interpretations and per-

sonal experiences. These individual interpretations and impressions are pres-

ent within the human perceptual functions of hearing and evaluating sound.

They cause individualized changes of the meaning and content of the sound.

Therefore, our interpretations and impressions are of little use in communi-

cating about sound. Humans have few listening experiences that are com-

mon between individuals and that are available to function as the reference

necessary for a meaningful exchange of information (communication).

This absence of reference experiences and knowledge makes it necessary

for the sound source itself to be described. Meaningful communication

about sound will not be precise and relevant without such a description.

The states and activities of the physical characteristics of the sound will be

described in our communications about sound. This approach to evaluating

sound requires knowledge of the physical dimensions of sound and how

they are transformed by perception. Meaningful communication between

individuals is possible when the actual, physical dimensions of sound are

described through deﬁ ning the activities of its component parts.

By describing the states and activities of the physical components of a sound,

people may communicate precise, detailed, and meaningful information.

The information must be communicated clearly and objectively. All of

Listening and Evaluating Sound for the Audio Professional

the listener’s subjective impressions about the sound, and all subjective

descriptions in relation to comparing the sound to other sounds, must be

avoided for meaningful communication to occur.

Subjective information does not transfer to another individual. As people

attempt to exchange their unique, personal impressions, the lack of a com-

mon reference does not allow for the ideas to be accurately exchanged.

Meaningful communication about sound can be accomplished through

describing the values and activities of the physical states of sound. Sounds

will be described by the characteristics that make them unique. Meaningful

information about sound can be communicated through verbally describing

the values and activities of the physical states of sound in a general way.

Information is communicated in a more detailed and precise manner through

graphing the activity, as will be described in the following chapters.

A vocabulary for sound is essential for audio professionals to recognize and

understand their perceptions, as well as to convey to others what they hear.

The Listening Process

Recording engineers and other industry professionals must learn to lis-

ten in very exacting ways. The proﬁ le of the listener discussed in Part One

assisted us in identifying how the recordist has different purposes for lis-

tening and needs a much higher skill level. It is necessary for audio pro-

fessionals to be accurate and consistent in the listening process and its

observations. Likely the most difﬁ cult job of the recordist is listening and

paying attention.

Listening skills need to be developed for the recordist to function in their

job. They will be focused in their attention and ultimately become system-

atic in how they listen to hear detail in sound. The recordist will not be lis-

tening passively, but rather will be actively engaged in seeking out informa-

tion with each passing sound. They will be concerned about a multitude of

things, from the quality of a performance, to its technical accuracy; from the

quality of a microphone selection, to its appropriate placement; from the

quality of the signal path, to the inherent sound quality of a signal processor.

All of these things and many more might pass through the thoughts of the

recordist frequently and regularly throughout any work session. The listen-

ing experience of the audio professional will be multidimensional in many

ways. All of their work comes back to learning how to listen.

The recordist must acquire a systematic approach to listening that

will involve quickly switching between critical and analytical listening

information. It will involve quickly switching between levels of detail, or

perspective, and focus on various artistic elements and musical materials.

In many ways the recordist’s listening process is like a scanner—always

moving between types of information and between levels of detail.

Chapter 4

Critical Listening versus Analytical Listening

Audio professionals evaluate sound in two ways: critical listening and

analytical listening. Critical listening and analytical listening seek different

information from the same sound. Analytical listening evaluates the artistic

elements of sound, and critical listening evaluates the perceived param-

eters. A different understanding of the sound is achieved in each case.

The artistic elements are the functions of the physical dimensions of sound,

applied to the artistic message of the recording. We recognize the physical

dimensions of sound through our perception, as perceived parameters. This

allows understanding of the technical integrity of sound quality to be con-

trasted with musical meaning and relationships of the artistic elements.

The same aspects of sound quality may provide two different sets of infor-

mation. This is entirely dependent upon the way we listen to the sound

material, evaluating the sound for its own content (critical listening) or

evaluating sound for its relationships to context (analytical listening). The

recordist must understand how the components of sound function in rela-

tion to the musical ideas of a piece of music and the message of the piece

itself. These are analytical listening tasks. The audio professional must also

understand how the components of sound function to create the impres-

sion of a single sound quality, and how they function in relation to the tech-

nical quality of the audio signal. These aspects are critical listening tasks.

Analytical listening is the evaluation of the content and the function of

the sound in relation to the musical or communication context in which it

exists. Analytical listening seeks to deﬁ ne the function (or signiﬁ cance) of

the musical material (or sound) to the other musical materials in the struc-

tural hierarchy. This type of listening is a detailed observation of the interre-

lationships of all musical materials, and of any text (lyrics). It will enhance

the recordist’s understanding of the music being recorded, and will allow

the recordist to conceive of the artistic elements as musical materials that

interact with traditional aspects of music.

Critical listening is the evaluation of the characteristics of the sound itself.

It is the evaluation of the quality of the audio signal (technical integrity)

through human perception, and it can be used for the evaluation of sound

quality out of the context of a piece of music. Critical listening is the process

of evaluating the dimensions of the artistic elements of sound as perceived

parameters—out of the context of the music. In critical listening, the states

and values of the artistic elements function as subparts of the perceived

parameters of sound. These aspects of sound are perceived in relation to

their contribution to the characteristics of the sound, or sound quality.

Critical listening seeks to deﬁ ne the perception of the physical dimen-

sions of sound, as the dimensions appear throughout the recording pro-

cess. It is concerned with making evaluations of the characteristics of the

sound itself, without relation to the material surrounding the sound, or to

Listening and Evaluating Sound for the Audio Professional

the meaning of the sound. Critical listening must take place at all levels of

listening perspective (see below), from the overall program to the minutest

aspects of sound.

The Sound Event and Sound Object

The concepts of the sound event and the sound object assist in under-

standing how the musical materials (analytical listening) and sound quality

(critical listening) are shaped by the artistic elements. A sound event is the

shape or design of the musical idea (or abstract sound) as it is experienced

over time. The sound object is the perception of the whole musical idea (or

abstract sound) at an instant, out of time.

The sound event is a complete musical idea (at any hierarchical level) that

is perceived by the states and values of the artistic elements of sound. The

term designates a musical event that is perceived as being extended over

time, and has signiﬁ cance to the meaning of the work. The sound event

is a musical idea perceived by its various dimensions, as shaped by the

artistic elements of sound. It is a perception of how the artistic elements

of sound are used to provide the musical section with its unique character.

The sound event is understood as unfolding and evolving over time, and is

used in analytical listening observations.

Sound object refers to sound material out of its original musical context.

For example, in a discussion of the sound quality of George Harrison’s Gib-

son J-200 on “Here Comes The Sun” compared to its sound on “While My

Guitar Gently Weeps,” the two sound qualities of the instrument would be

thought of as sound objects during that evaluation and comparison pro-

cess. A sound object is a conceptualization of a sound as existing out of

time, and without relationship to another sound (except its possible direct

comparison with another sound object).

The concepts, sound object and sound event, are contrasted at any hierar-

chical level. They allow analytical listening and critical listening evaluations

to be performed, interchangeably and/or simultaneously, on the same

sound materials.

These concepts are able to provide an evaluation of the music’s use of the

artistic elements of sound, in ways that are not necessarily related to the

importance or function of the musical materials. Rather, these concepts seek

to determine information on the artistic elements (or perceived parameters)

themselves, as they exist as singular and unique entities (sound objects),

and as they change over time (sound events).

Chapter 4

Perspective and Focus

For sound evaluation purposes, the audio professional must be able to

understand the artistic elements of sound, how those elements relate to the

perceived parameters of sound, and how those two conceptions of sound

are used with

perspective and with focus. The concepts of perspective and

focus are central to the listening process and evaluating sound. The audi-

ence will go through this process in a general and intuitive manner. The

audio professional must be thorough and systematized in approaching the

listening process.

In order for the message carried by the artistic elements to be perceived,

the listener (audience or audio professional) must recognize that impor-

tant information is being communicated in a certain artistic element. The

listener must then decipher the information to understand the message,

or recognize the qualities of the sound. The listener will identify the artistic

elements that are conveying the important information by scanning the

sound material at different perspectives, while focusing attention on the

various artistic elements at the various levels of perspective.

Focus is the act of bringing some aspect of sound to the center of one’s

attention. The listener needs to identify the appropriate, perceived param-

eter of sound that will become the center (focus) of attention in deciphering

the sound information. Further, the listener needs to determine a speciﬁ c

level of detail on which to focus attention.

The

perspective of the listener determines the level of detail at which the

sound material will be perceived. Perspective is the perception of the piece

of music (or of sound quality) at a speciﬁ c level of the structural hierarchy.

The content of a hierarchy is entirely dependent upon the nature of the

music or program material, at any speciﬁ c time.

In a musical context, the detail might break down as in Table 4-1. Each lev-

el of detail represents a unique perspective from which the material can

be perceived. Each perspective will allow the listener to observe different

dimensions and activities of the sound material. A perspective might be

thought of as a type of distance of the listener from the sound material;

the nearer the listener to the material, the more detail the listener is able to

perceive. Perspective is the level of detail at which one is listening.

Listening and Evaluating Sound for the Audio Professional

Table 4-1

Example of Hierarchical Levels of Perspective

Level 1

Overall musical texture and form

Level 2

Text (lyrics)

Level 3

Program dynamic contour, timbral balance, sound stage

Level 4

Individual musical parts (melody, harmony, etc.)

Level 5

Groupings of instruments and voices

Level 6

Individual sound sources (instruments and voices)

Level 7

Dynamic relationships of instruments (musical balance)

Level 8

Composite sound of individual sources (timbre and spatial qualities)

Level 9

Pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, space, and duration elements of an

individual sound of a speciﬁ c sound source

Level 10

Dynamic contour; deﬁ nition of important components of timbre and

space of an individual sound of a speciﬁ c sound source

Level 11

The spectral content (harmonics and overtones) of the individual

sound of a speciﬁ c sound source

Level 12

The spectral envelope (dynamic envelopes of the overtones and har-

monics) of that speciﬁ c sound

The listener may approach any perspective to extract analytical listening

information (pertaining to the function of the musical materials and artistic

elements at that level of the structural hierarchy) or to extract critical lis-

tening information (pertaining to deﬁ ning the characteristics of the sound

itself). Focus, again, is the act of bringing one’s attention to the activity and

information occurring at a speciﬁ c perspective of the structural hierarchy,

and/or within a particular artistic element or perceived parameter.

Attention to focus and perspective are needed in both critical listening and

analytical listening activities, and should be considered before starting any

listening session. It is important for the recording professional to deﬁ ne the

focus and level of perspective of the listening experience before the sound

material begins, as they can shape the listening experience in strikingly dif-

ferent ways for different situations. In many listening situations, all param-

eters of sound will need to be continually scanned to determine their inﬂ u-

ence on the integrity of the audio signal, and all artistic elements will need

to be scanned to determine their importance as carriers and shapers of the

musical message. In other listening situations, the recordist might need

to carefully follow a speciﬁ c artistic element at a speciﬁ c level of perspec-

tive throughout the listening experience. Different situations will require

a different approach to listening. It is important that the recording profes-

sional have a clear idea of what needs to be the focus of their attention and

the level of detail required (perspective) before beginning to listen—or of

the need for continually shifting focus and levels of perspective.

In beginning studies it is very important for the listener to have a clear pur-

pose for each listening experience. This will greatly assist the learning pro-

cess, and will make each listening session more productive and successful.

Chapter 4

They should be focused on a speciﬁ c level of perspective and on a speciﬁ c

aspect of the sound, and should seek to ignore other aspects of sound. They

will listen to the material repeatedly with a focus on a new aspect of sound

at each repetition. With practice, one will be able to listen to (and recognize

and understand what is happening to) many elements “at once.”

Multidimensional Listening Skills

Equal attention must be given to all aspects of sound as, depending on

the sound material and purpose of the listening, any perceived parameter

of sound or any artistic element may be the correct focus of the listener’s

attention. An incorrect focus will cause important information to go unper-

ceived and will cause unimportant information to incorrectly skew the

listener’s perception of the material. The recording professional will often

face the possibility that a change might happen in any of the dimensions of

sound, at any point in time, at any level of perspective. It is necessary that

recording professionals hear, recognize, and understand the character of

the sound and any changes that might occur. This awareness needs to be

cultivated, as it is counter to our learned listening tendencies.

Audio professionals must develop their listening skills to be multidimen-

sional. The listening process involves the potential need to listen to many

things simultaneously. Though on one hand impossible, this is in practice

often necessary. To accurately evaluate sound, they must learn to:

1. Shift perspective between all levels of detail,

2. Focus on appropriate elements and parameters at all levels of perspec-

tive (and not allow their attention to be pulled away to activity in anoth-

er element or level of perspective), and

3. Shift between analytical listening (for the qualities and relationships

of musical material) and critical listening (for the characteristics of the

sound itself) to allow the evaluation of sound.

Distractions

It is often difﬁ cult for the recordist to keep from being distracted. Maintain-

ing focus on the purpose and intent of the particular listening experience is

very important. Common distractions are becoming preoccupied with the

music, being drawn to sounds and sound qualities other than those under

evaluation, and being curious about how a sound quality was created (as

opposed to character of the sound).

Most of us are drawn to a career in recording because of a love of music.

When working on a recording, we can lose our focus by becoming engaged

with the musicality of the material. This focus is similar to listening for enter-

tainment. However, there is a time and place to listen for entertainment.

Most often recordists listen to qualities that are more precise and exacting.

Listening and Evaluating Sound for the Audio Professional

Even when listening within musical contexts, working directly with musi-

cal materials, and thinking about the musicality of the recording, the audio

professional will be working at a level of perspective that is far removed

from the passive music listening experience enjoyed by most people.

While focused on listening to the characteristics of one element of sound,

the sound qualities of another element can draw the listener’s attention. It

is very important that the listener remain mindful of the purpose of the lis-

tening experience. For example, if the listening activity is intended to deter-

mine the musical balance of the snare drum against the toms, one should

not allow oneself to get distracted by the sound quality of the piano.

In evaluating sound, audio professionals must remember that they are

seeking to understand the sound that is present. It is possible for the lis-

tener to become distracted from listening by their own knowledge of the

recording process or by their wanting to learn more about the recording

process. At times people are drawn to thinking about how sound qualities

were created—equipment, recording techniques, etc. Bringing production

concerns into the process of evaluating sound is counterproductive, unless

the recordist is speciﬁ cally trying to identify equipment choices and pro-

duction techniques, but this is a very different matter.

Listening sessions should have a clearly deﬁ ned function. If the recordist is

listening to determine equipment that may have been used in a recording,

then that is the purpose of the session. If the recordist is listening to under-

stand the sound quality of a certain environmental characteristic, then they

should be listening to the various components of that sound and not be

concerned about identifying the manufacturer or model number or the set-

tings of the device that created the environment.

Personal Development for Listening

and Sound Evaluation

The skills and thought processes required for listening and sound evalu-

ation must be learned. The development of any skill requires regular,

focused, and attentive practice. Patience is required to work through the

many repetitions that will be needed to master all of the skills necessary to

accurately evaluate sound. Each individual will develop at a separate pace,

as with any other learning.

Memory Development

The recordist will evaluate sound more quickly and accurately with the

development of their auditory memory. This will often be accomplished

through their ability to recognize patterns in the various aspects of sound.

The listener must be conscious of the memory of the sound event, and they

Chapter 4

must seek to develop their memory to sustain an impression of the sound

long enough to describe, annotate, or graph certain characteristics about

the sound event.

Auditory memory can be developed. As one learns what to listen for, and

as one understands more about sound and how it is used, the listener’s

ability to remember material increases proportionally. This is similar to the

process of learning to perform pieces of music through listening to record-

ings of performances and mimicking the performances. With repetition, this

seemingly impossible task becomes a skill that is much easier to perform.

Listeners often remember more than their conﬁ dence allows them to rec-

ognize. The listener must learn to explore their memory and immediately

check their evaluations to conﬁ rm the information.

The human mind seeks to organize objects into patterns. Sound events

have states or levels of activity of their component parts that will often tend

to fall into an organized pattern. The listener must become sensitive to the

possibility of patterns forming in all aspects of the sound event, to allow

greater ease in the process of evaluating sound. Recognizing patterns will

assist in understanding sound and sequences of sounds, and will make

remembering them more possible.

Developing memory is very possible and very important. Considering

sound takes place over time and can only exist by atmospheric changes

over time, it should be understood that sound is a memory. Sound is an

experience that is understood backwards in time. Sound is perceived after it

is past, using memory. Sound does not happen now (at a speciﬁ c moment)

but rather it happened then. It can start or stop now, but it exists over a

stretch of time (duration).

The reader is encouraged to work through the exercise at the end of this

chapter and to return to that exercise regularly during the course of their

work in listening skill development.

Success and Improvement

With increased experience in evaluating sound comes increased skill and

accuracy. The act of listening and the process of evaluating sound can be

learned and become greatly reﬁ ned.

The reader will continue to become more accurate and consistent in evalu-

ating sound the more they practice the skills and follow the exercises in

the following chapters. The development of these skills must be viewed as

a long-term undertaking. Some of the skills might seem difﬁ cult, or impos-

sible, during the ﬁ rst attempts. The reader must remember their previous

experiences might not have prepared them for certain tasks. The skills are,

however, very obtainable. Further, the skills are desirable, as the individual

Listening and Evaluating Sound for the Audio Professional

will function at a much higher level of proﬁ ciency in the audio industry after

they have obtained these evaluation and listening skills.

The mastery of the skills of sound evaluation is a lifelong process, one that

should be consistently practiced and itself evaluated. New controls of sound

are continually being developed by the audio industry. These new controls

create new challenges to the listening abilities of those in the audio industry.

Discovering Sound

Things are present in recorded music that are subtle and difﬁ cult to hear.

Most people have never really experienced a good number of these subtle

dimensions of recordings. When something has never been experienced or

perceived, one does not know it exists. It is possible for people to simply

not hear some aspect of sound, simply because they do not have an aware-

ness of or sensitivity to that dimension. Once that awareness and sensitiv-

ity is developed, those sounds are heard as easily as any other.

Personal Knowledge Michael Polanyi conveys the experience of a medi-

cal student attending a course in the X-ray diagnosis of pulmonary dis-

eases. The student watches dark shadows on a ﬂ uorescent screen against a

patient’s chest while listening to the radiologist describe the signiﬁ cance of

those shadows in detailed and speciﬁ c terms. At ﬁ rst the student is puzzled

and can only see the shadows of the heart and ribs, with some spidery

blotches between them. The student does not see what is being discussed.

It appears to be a ﬁ gment of the radiologist’s imagination. As a few weeks

progress, and the student continues to look carefully at the X-rays of new

cases and listen to the radiologist, a tentative understanding begins to

dawn on the student. Gradually the student begins to forget about the ribs

and the heart, and starts to see the lungs. With perseverance in maintaining

intellectual involvement, the student ultimately perceives many signiﬁ cant

details, and a rich panorama is revealed. The student has entered a new

world. The student may still see only a fraction of what the seasoned radi-

ologist sees, but the pictures now make deﬁ nite sense, as do most of the

comments made by the instructor.

Many readers will likely discover a new world of sound. Dimensions of

sound exist that are out of normal listening experience. We are not aware

of those sounds until we learn what they are, and learn to bring the focus

of our attention to those elements. Only then can we discover them and

begin to understand them.

We have learned to focus our attention on certain aspects of sound. In music,

we have learned that pitch relationships will give us the most important

information. In speech, we know that the sound qualities of words make

up language, and the sound qualities of the speaker will inform us who is

talking. We know dynamics will simply enhance the message of these two

Chapter 4

communications, and we listen to them in that way. We have been taught

that where a musical instrument is playing is not important (and therefore

not worth the effort of recognizing the sound characteristics of location and

environment), but what pitches they are playing

is important (and worthy

of attention).

The reader will now be asked to perform listening exercises and to evaluate

sound in ways that work against these learned (and perhaps natural) listen-

ing tendencies. This requires conscious effort, focused attention, patience,

and diligence. With the knowledge that the listener is working against natu-

ral tendencies, it will make sense that certain things are difﬁ cult. This does

not mean they are impossible; many people accomplish them daily. Nor

does it mean that this way of listening should not take place. This way of lis-

tening is necessary to evaluate and understand many aspects of recorded

sound that are simply not normally at the center of one’s attention. As we

know, the audio professional needs to listen in ways and for things that are

not part of a layperson’s normal listening experiences.

The student took the leap of faith that is necessary in learning. The stu-

dent believed in the radiologist and continued to try to understand, ini-

tially perceiving the material as an illusion, not really present, a ﬁ gment of

the radiologist’s imagination. The student reached a moment of revelation

when suddenly an image was perceived. It was always there. The student

was now able to see it because of increased sensitivity to the possibility of

its existence and an understanding of what that existence might be.

If the reader can commit to a similar leap of faith, they may be rewarded

with the discovery of a remarkable new world of sound.

Summary

Understanding sound must begin with perceiving sound. This requires

active attention, and sufﬁ cient knowledge and experience to know what to

listen for. One can then recognize what is happening in the sound or rec-

ognize the nature of the sound. This recognition can lead to understanding.

What is understood can be communicated, given a vocabulary to exchange

meaningful information that is based on a common experience.

A system for evaluating sound has been devised and is presented in fol-

lowing chapters. It will provide a means for evaluating sound in its many

forms and uses, and will provide a vocabulary that can communicate mean-

ingful information about sound. The audio professional needs to evaluate

sound for its aesthetic and artistic elements and its perceived parameters,

as they exist in critical listening and analytical listening applications and at

all levels of perspective. The system for evaluating sound addresses these

concerns, and more.

Listening and Evaluating Sound for the Audio Professional

Exercises

The following exercise should be practiced until you are comfortable with the

material covered.

Exercise 4-1

Musical Memory Development Exercise

1. Select a recording of a song you know reasonably well and prepare a time

line with measures numbered, up to perhaps 100.

2. Before listening to the recording, sit quietly and try to remember as much

detail of the song as you can.

3. Now, write down the song’s meter. In your mind, listen to the piece and

write down where the major sections begin and end. If you cannot come

up with those divisions easily, you might well be able to deduce that in-

formation by thinking about the patterns of phrases in the introduction,

verses, choruses, etc. Write down as much information as you can.

4. Think carefully about what you wrote and identify aspects you are not certain

about—things that need to be determined when you listen to the recording.

5. Now you can listen to the recording, but listen intently for the informa-

tion you have determined you need. Do not follow your graph. Listen with

your eyes closed. Listen to remember what you hear. Do not write while

you are listening and do not correct your graph while you are listening.

6. When the song has stopped, write down what you heard in your one

listening and correct what you previously wrote. Then repeat steps 4 and

5 until you have created a time line and structure of the song—in as few

listening sessions as possible. Check your information one last time while

following your graph. All of the information you wrote should be checked

for accuracy; make corrections to your graph.

7. Do not get discouraged. Keep trying. If overwhelmed, take a break but

return to the exercise in short order.

8. Select another piece of music you know more thoroughly and perform the

exercise again.

This exercise can be performed whenever a time line needs to be created.

If faced with a new song, listen intently to the song once immediately after

sketching a time line. Remember not to write while listening. Listen when it

is time to listen. Write what you have recognized and remembered when the

music has stopped.

People remember more than they believe they do. If you will trust your memo-

ry and use it, your memory will develop. Your conﬁ dence will grow as well.

This exercise should be continually modiﬁ ed to incorporate any sound element

you need to evaluate. For example, stereo location could replace structure. The

purpose of this exercise is to improve your memory for the perceived parameters

and the aesthetic and artistic elements of sound—any of them and all of them.

100

5 A System for Evaluating Sound

The many different positions of the audio industry and their unique needs

for sound evaluation create a need for a sound evaluation system that can

be readily transferred to a variety of contexts. It must easily yield mean-

ingful and signiﬁ cant information to people of diverse backgrounds and

job functions. The method must transfer between musical contexts and

abstract, critical listening applications.

The aspects of sound evaluated and shaped by people in audio cannot be

described using our current vocabulary. No way to accurately talk about

sound is available.

A system for evaluating sound will be presented over the next six chapters.

The system can be adapted to be useful to all people in the audio indus-

try, and also for analyzing the musical qualities of recordings. The system

will establish guidelines for talking about sound by describing the physical

dimensions of sound, as they have been perceived. Through this, these

descriptions can be objective and accurate.

Outside scientiﬁ c measurement and music notation systems, sound has no

written form. Being able to write down the qualities of sound will greatly

assist people in audio in evaluating sound, describing sound, studying

recording techniques and recordings, discussing sound with others, and

keeping records. The system incorporates ways of graphing and notating

sound’s perceived parameters and the artistic elements. This will greatly

aid the listener in achieving these goals, and in understanding, recogniz-

ing, or evaluating sound.

System Overview

The system for sound evaluations was created to supply objective infor-

mation on the listening experience. It seeks to give the listener the tools

to deﬁ ne what is being heard. This will lead to a better understanding of

the unique qualities of recorded/reproduced sound, better communication

A System for Evaluating Sound

101

between people discussing sound, and enhanced control of the artistic

aspects of making music recordings.

The elements of sound are all evaluated independently, using a variety of

techniques. These isolated evaluations may then be related to evaluations

of other elements, to observe how they interact. The standard

X-Y graph

used in so many different scientiﬁ c contexts has been adapted for many

of these evaluations, especially those that take place against time. Other

evaluations use unique diagrams such as the sound stage.

The system seeks to describe and deﬁ ne the activities of the ﬁ ve physical

dimensions of sound, as they are used in recording production/reproduc-

tion. The system examines the changes of state and value of those dimen-

sions of sound, as they appear in perception and in artistic expression.

Table 5-1 outlines how the various evaluations of the system relate to the

aesthetic and artistic elements or perceived parameters of sound.

Table 5-1

Evaluation Techniques for the Elements of Sound

Element of Sound Evaluation Graphs and Processes

Time Time line of song; with structure, phrase, and text

indications

Sound sources against time line

Pitch Melodic contour

Pitch area

Pitch density

Dynamics Dynamic contour

Musical balance

Sound quality Performance intensity

Sound quality evaluation

Timbral balance

Spatial properties Distance location

Stereo location and surround location

Sound stage

Perceived performance environment

Environmental characteristics of sources

The system starts with basic skills and builds on them. Skill in recogniz-

ing musical materials and building a time line lead to the development of

skills in pitch-related perception and dynamics. Interspersed throughout

the system are exercises to build skills preparing the reader to undertake

sound-quality evaluations. Finally, skills in recognizing spatial properties

and environmental characteristics are addressed.

A complete listing of exercises appears after the table of contents. They

are arranged in what is usually the most effective order for skill develop-

ment, and the reader is encouraged to work through the exercises in the

presented sequence. The exercises appear at the end of the chapters that

contain explanations of the material. Some skills will take longer to learn

Chapter 5

102

than others, and the reader should be careful in assessing their progress.

The assistance of someone that is already a skilled listener or teacher will

at times be valuable. Any one exercise should be learned well before pro-

gressing too far ahead, though mastery of skills is not necessary before

moving ahead. Indeed, mastery of some of these skills might take years,

and the reader is encouraged to return to those exercises throughout an

extended period of time. The ﬁ rst exercises of Part One should be reviewed

before continuing with the exercises of Part Two.

Notating or writing down the characteristics of a sound can greatly assist

the listener in understanding the sound. These notations (written repre-

sentations of the sound) can also be used for communicating with others

about the sound, for evaluating the sound, remembering the characteris-

tics of the sound, and even for recreating the sound. While the reader will

not seek to perform a written evaluation of all sounds during their career,

performing a detailed evaluation of a sound will provide information that

might otherwise go unobserved, especially early in one’s development.

Notating sound material in graph form will be used for ﬁ nely developing

the reader’s perception and sound evaluation skills. It will also provide the

reader with a useful resource to assist in evaluating sound.

Creating the graphs of the following chapters will force readers to place

their focus on a speciﬁ c element. This will bring them to discover and rec-

ognize the characteristics of the element in greater and greater detail as

their skill develops. The reader will develop listening skills much more

quickly by taking the time and effort to create the graphs than would hap-

pen otherwise. Further, the graphs will aid the listener in comparing one

sound or mix to another, and by such comparisons learn more about the

artists, producers/engineers and the recordings. The graphs also allow the

reader to “record” their observations for further study in the future; it will

be interesting for the reader to observe how these graphs change in accu-

racy over a short amount of time and focused attention.

The system for evaluating sound has much in common with traditional

forms of music-related ear training. Some of the skills learned by musi-

cians will transfer to this process. An ability to take traditional music dic-

tation will be beneﬁ cial to learning the process of evaluating sound, but

is not required. Traditional listening skills emphasize pitch relationships in

musical contexts. This comprises a very small part of our concerns about

sound in audio. The skills of making time judgments and an awareness of

activities in pitch, dynamics, and timbre will need to be developed much

further than traditional approaches allow.

Many musicians start their studies by mimicking or repeating music on

recordings. Music is often learned by the person listening to recordings

and trying to play back what was heard. Many people have even learned to

play musical instruments almost solely by listening to recordings. Repeated

listening to the same recording is something many people have previously

A System for Evaluating Sound

103

done, whether to learn something or for enjoyment. This experience will be

important in the many exercises in developing skill in evaluating sound.

It is important that all information extracted from sound evaluations be objec-

tive. Audio professionals need to communicate about the characteristics of

sound. Communications about how the sound makes them feel or whether

or not they like the sound may come from clients or nonindustry people and

need to be interpreted into the audio professional’s work activities, but the

information is not relevant or valuable in the evaluation of sound.

The reader must learn never to use subjective impressions or descriptions

of the sound event in the evaluation process. Such impressions are unique

to each individual and cannot be accurately communicated between indi-

viduals (they mean something different to all people). They do not con-

tribute to an understanding and recognition of the characteristics of the

sound event. Subjective impressions or descriptions do not contribute per-

tinent, meaningful information about the sound, and will not contribute

to understanding the characteristics of sound. They have no place in the

sound evaluation process.

Sound Evaluation Sequence

The sound evaluation process will follow a sequence of activities:

1. Perceiving an element of sound or an activity of material to be ana-

lyzed at a deﬁ ned perspective,

2. Identifying the material,

3. Deﬁ ning the material, and

4. Observing the characteristics present in the material, and/or between

the material and its musical context.

The evaluation of sound begins with perceiving the sound event or sound

object that comprises the musical material.

A sound event/object can be any sound, aspect of sound, or sequence(s)

of sounds that can be recognized as forming a single unit. The event/object

may be at any hierarchical level of musical context or of sound quality

analysis—from a distant perspective (such as the shape of the overall piece

of music) to a close perspective with a focus on some nuance (such as

a small change in the spectral content of timbre). The sound event/object

must, however, have a speciﬁ c and deﬁ ned perspective. Each sound evalu-

ation will have a single focus on a speciﬁ c perspective. This perspective

must be well deﬁ ned in the listener’s mind.

Next, the listener must recognize and, in some way, identify the sound

object/event. This act is necessary to differentiate it from the material that

precedes it, follows it, or is occurring simultaneously. The sound event/

object will have dimensions within which it exists, and through which it

Chapter 5

104

is deﬁ ned. It will have points in time where it begins and ends. It will be

perceived within the musical/communications context or in isolation. The

sound event/object will be deﬁ ned through an understanding of the unique

states and activities of the components of sound (artistic elements or per-

ceived parameters) that comprise the sound.

Whatever the content of the sound object/event, the listener must perceive

it as a single unit. This will be accomplished through identifying and recog-

nizing the boundaries within which the sound event exists.

Third, the listener deﬁ nes the sound event/object. This deﬁ nition process

will seek to compile information on the activities or unique qualities of the

materials of the sound event/object that make it separate and distinct from

the materials that preceded it, follows it, and/or that occurred simultane-

ously with it. Deﬁ ning this activity (calculating what is happening to or in

the various artistic elements or perceived parameters) is often the most

difﬁ cult task of sound evaluation.

Any number of repeated hearings of the sound event/object will be needed

to deﬁ ne all of the information it contains. This skill will need to be devel-

oped over time and with practice. As the listener’s evaluation and listening

skills improve, the number of hearings required will reduce signiﬁ cantly.

The ﬁ nal step is to seek to make sense of the information that accumu-

lated in deﬁ ning the sound event/object. In comparing the information of

its components, meaningful observations can be made. The listener will

compare materials recently experienced and materials that are well known

to the listener. These other sound events/objects are evaluated for their

relationship to the deﬁ ned sound event/object. The listener will be looking

for same, similar, and dissimilar states of activity and other attributes in

the other known sound sources, as those that deﬁ ned the sound source, to

assist in making pertinent observations about the sound event/object. The

process is complete when the listener has compiled the information neces-

sary to make the needed observations of the event and its context.

The sound evaluation system is a clear set of routines. It is directly related

to the listening experience. The routines follow the order:

1. Identifying perspective, with suitable alteration of the listener’s sense

of focus,

2. Deﬁ ning the boundaries of the sound event or sound object,

3. Gathering detailed information on the material and activity, and

4. Making observations from the compiled information.

The perception of the individual sound event/object occurs at a speciﬁ c per-

spective. The listener must consciously decide the level of detail at which

the sound event/object will be evaluated—the perspective. The sound

event/object and its component parts can then be identiﬁ ed and isolated

from all other aspects of sound. The perspective at which the listener has

A System for Evaluating Sound

105

identiﬁ ed the sound event/object becomes the reference level of the hierar-

chy, or framework, for the individual X-Y graph (discussed below).

Next, the sound event/object will be deﬁ ned by its boundaries of levels of ele-

ments and speed of activity. It is most often deﬁ ned by (1) when it exists (its

time line), (2) its most signiﬁ cant sound elements (providing the event with

its unique characteristics—the levels of the elements of sound that comprise

the sound event), (3) the highest and lowest levels (boundaries) within those

sound elements (the extremes of levels of activity to be mapped against

the time line, or that do not change over time—levels), and (4) the relation-

ships of how the sound event’s characteristics change over time (amount of

change and rate of change of levels mapped against the time line).

Deﬁ ning the sound event will include:

1. Determining the time line: beginning and ending points in time of the

sound event/object, and identifying the suitable time increment to allow

the activity of the components of sound that characterize the event to

be clearly presented.

2. Determining which of the elements of sound hold the signiﬁ cant infor-

mation that characterize the sound event/object. These are the compo-

nents that supply the information that deﬁ ne its unique characteris-

tics. These are the components that must be thoroughly evaluated to

understand the content of the sound event/object.

3. Determining the boundaries of the components/elements of sound

being evaluated. These will be maximum and minimum values or lev-

els found in each of the components of sound.

4. Determining the speed at which the fastest change takes place. This will

assist in deﬁ ning the most suitable smallest time increment of the time

line.

The third step compiles detailed information on the material and activity. It

will add detail to the above step. A listing of the sources (items to be ana-

lyzed) will draw the listener into the evaluation process quickly and directly,

and it should become one of the very ﬁ rst steps in collecting detailed infor-

mation for the evaluation of sound.

The components of sound will be evaluated to determine their precise lev-

els, often against the time line. This is plotting or notating the activity of

the component parts of the sound. The components of the sound will be

closely evaluated, with as much detail as possible, to determine their pre-

cise levels throughout.

Most often the component being evaluated changes over time and must

have its levels related to a time line. This information will be plotted on a

two-dimensional graph (discussed below); this allows the information to

be written/notated. This process involves all of the skills of taking music

dictation. In fact, this process is a type of music dictation for some new and

some previously ignored aspects of sound.

Chapter 5

106

A written form of the sound will be created through the process of fol-

lowing Steps 1 through 3, above. Graphing the sound event/object makes

it much easier to compile the information that will allow the listener to

recognize and understand the characteristics of sound. When sound has

been notated, it is possible for the listener to check previous observations

for accuracy, to focus on particular portions of the sound event/object, and

for the listener to be able to continue examining information on the sound

out of real time.

The ﬁ nal activity in evaluating sound is examining the compiled informa-

tion to make observations about the sound event. The type of observations

made will vary considerably depending on context—such as either a music

mix or a microphone technique.

For example, if the observations are being made concerning the function-

ing of a particular piece of audio equipment, the evaluations will center

on the aspects of sound that the particular piece of equipment acts upon.

Observations might be focused around the effectiveness of the piece of

equipment, the integrity of the audio signal, any differences between the

input and the output signals, and how the device acts on the various dimen-

sions of sound.

The listener/evaluator will formulate questions and will use the informa-

tion compiled in the steps above to answer those questions. Which ques-

tions to ask will be determined by their appropriateness to the purpose

of the evaluation. The answers acquired through this process will be ones

of substance and will be directly related to the sound event/object. The

answers produced by this process will not produce subjective impressions

or opinions.

The observations made in this ﬁ nal evaluation process need not be pro-

found to be signiﬁ cant. Often the simplest, most obvious observations offer

the most signiﬁ cant and important information concerning a sound event.

Graphing the States and Activity of Sound Components

The traditional two-dimensional line graph is quickly understood and easily

designed and used by most people. Therefore, it has been selected as the

basis for notating the various artistic elements and perceived parameters

that create sound events and sound objects.

A System for Evaluating Sound

107

Figure 5-1

X-Y line

graph.

Horizontal (X) Axis

Time

Vertical (Y) Axis

The line graph will nearly always be used with time as the horizontal (X)

axis. In this way, values of states (levels) of the component parts of the

sound can be plotted with respect to time. This allows the sound to be

observed from beginning to end at a glance, out of real time.

Time Line

The length of the material that can be plotted on a single graph is deter-

mined by the divisions of the time axis, or

time line. Events of great length

(and little detail) may be plotted on a single graph, and events of short dura-

tion (and great detail) may be plotted on a single graph. A balance must be

found in selecting the appropriate time increment for the time line. For the

graph to be of greatest beneﬁ t, the sound should be easily observed in its

totality (from beginning to end), and the graph should have sufﬁ cient detail

to be of use in observing the qualities of the material.

Time increments will be selected for the

X-axis that are appropriate for the

sound. Time increments will take one of two forms: (1) units based on the

second (millisecond, tenths of seconds, groups of seconds, etc.), and (2)

units based on the metric grid (individual or subdivisions of pulses, mea-

sures, or groups of measures).

If the sound material is in a musical context, the metric grid will nearly

always be the appropriate unit for the time axis. Remember, we judge time

increments most accurately with the recurring pulse of the metric grid act-

ing as a reference.

In general, when the sound evaluation utilizes the metric grid, a process

of analytical listening is occurring. Critical listening evaluations most often

use real-time increments and not the metric grid. The difference is one of

context and focus.

Chapter 5

108

If the sound material being evaluated is not in a musical context, increments

based on the second must be used. It will be common to use increments

based on the second in the evaluation of timbre relationships (including

sound quality and environmental characteristics). Envisioning a pulse of

MM:60 (or an integer or a multiple thereof) will provide some reference to

the listener in making time judgments without a metric grid, but this activ-

ity may not always be appropriate. It may distort the listener’s perception

of the material, and the reference may be unstable, as the listener’s atten-

tion will rightly be focused elsewhere.

A stopwatch might assist in evaluating larger time units (to the tenths of

seconds). The ability to judge time relationships can be developed. It is rec-

ommended the reader turn to the time exercises at the end of this chapter.

They will allow the reader to reﬁ ne their skills in accurately making time

judgments, by learning to recognize the unique sound qualities (timbres)

of various time units and tempo of clock time.

With practice, the listener will develop the ability to make accurate time

judgments of a few milliseconds within the context of known, recognizable

sound sources and materials. This skill will be invaluable in many of the

advanced sound evaluation tasks regularly performed by

audio professionals.

The time unit used in any line graph will be that which is

most appropriate for the sound event or sound object.

The time increment selected must allow the graph to

depict the example accurately. The smallest perceivable

change in the components of sound being analyzed must

be readily apparent, and yet as much material as possible

should be contained on the single graph.

Vertical (Y) Axis

The components of sound to be plotted and the boundaries of levels and

activities of those components are next determined. In the initial two stag-

es of the sound evaluation process, the listener determines those compo-

nents of the sound event that provide it with its unique character. These

components will be the ones most appropriately evaluated by plotting their

activity on the line graph.

The component of the sound event to be evaluated will be placed on the

vertical (

Y) axis of the line graph. The second step of the sound evalua-

tion process (above) is now followed. The listener will now determine the

maximum and minimum levels reached in the sound event, in each of the

components of sound to be graphed. These maximum and minimum levels

will be slightly exceeded when establishing the upper and lower boundar-

ies of the

Y-axis.

Listen . . .

to tracks 26-33

for exercise in developing skills in

judging(recognizing) small time units.

A System for Evaluating Sound

109

Exceeding these perceived boundaries allows for errors that may have

been made during initial judgments of the boundaries and allows for

greater visual clarity of the graph. Boundaries should be exceeded by 5 to

15 percent, depending on context of the material and the space available

on the line graph.

Next, the minimum changes of activity and levels are determined. Through

Step 3 of the sound evaluation sequence described above, the listener will

determine the smallest increment of level change for the components of

the sound event or sound object.

This smallest increment of levels will serve as the reference in determining

the correct division of the

Y-axis. It is necessary for the Y-axis to be divided

to allow the smallest value of the component of sound to be clearly repre-

sented, just as the

X (time) axis of the graph was divided previously so the

fastest change of level would be clear.

The division of the vertical axis must allow the graph to depict the mate-

rial accurately. The smallest signiﬁ cant change in the components of sound

being evaluated must be immediately visible to the reader of the graph,

and yet the vertical axis must not occupy so much space as to distort the

material. The reader of the graph must be able to identify the overall shape

of the activity, as well as the small details of the activity of the component

the graph represents. A balance between limitations of space and clarity of

presentation of the materials will always be sought.

Multitiered Graphs

It is not always desirable for each component of the sound event/object to

have a separate line graph. Many times several components can be includ-

ed on the same graph and plotted against the same time line.

Multitier

graphs allow several components to be represented against the same time

line, and provide the advantage that all characteristics can be more eas-

ily related to one another. This will lead to an easier understanding of the

sound’s qualities.

In multitier graphs the vertical (

Y) axis of the line graph is divided into seg-

ments. Each segment is dedicated to a different component of sound. Each

segment will have its own boundaries and increments.

Plotting a number of components of sound against the same time line not

only makes efﬁ cient use of space on the graph, it also allows a number of

the characteristics of the sound (perhaps the entire sound) to be viewed

simultaneously.

The person reading the graph will be able to extract information more

quickly from a multitier graph than from a series of individual graphs. In

addition, when several components of sound appear against the same time

Chapter 5

110

line, the states and activities of the various components of the sound event/

object can be compared in ways that would be difﬁ cult (if not impossible)

were these components separated.

Speciﬁ c multitier graphs will be used for certain evaluations in later chapters.

In those cases, the graphs will always appear in a predetermined format,

and greatly assist evaluations of components such as sound quality, musical

balance versus performance intensity, and environmental characteristics.

Figure 5-2

Multitier

graph with multiple

sound sources.



Far

Near

Proximity

Time

(in measures)

Distance Location Stereo Location Musical Balance

voice

KEY

organ

guitar

bass





Graphing Multiple Sound Sources

Multiple sound sources within the same component of the sound will also

need to be graphed. It is quite common for more than one aspect of a com-

ponent to be taking place at any one time (such as the sound of harmonics

and overtones within the spectrum of a sound). This activity would require

a separate tier of a multitier graph for each sound source in each com-

ponent of the sound event/object being evaluated. The line graph would

quickly become large and unclear.

A System for Evaluating Sound

111

As long as the segment of the graph can remain clear, it is possible for any

number of sound sources to appear on any graph. When more than one

sound source appears against the same two axes, the activities of each

sound source must be clearly differentiated from the others. Sound sourc-

es may be differentiated in a number of ways. Each of these ways may

be useful depending on the situation—what is available to the reader, the

nature of the sound, or the context of the material.

The lines that denote each sound source may be labeled. The labeling of

lines is accomplished by placing a number or the name of each sound

source in or near the appropriate line on the graph. This type of differentia-

tion is useful for graphs that contain relatively few sound sources.

Providing a different line conﬁ guration for each sound source is sometimes

a suitable way of differentiating a number of sources on the same tier of

X-Y graph. Combinations of dots and dashes, or the insertion of geo-

metric shapes into the source-lines may be useful for differentiating sound

sources on the same graph—again for graphs with relatively few sources.

When sound sources are assigned lines of different colors, the graph can

clearly display the largest number of sources. Only the number of easily

recognized colors available then limits the number of sources that can be

placed on the same graph.

The use of different colors has the further advantage of being able to deﬁ ne

groups of sound sources by assigning a color to the group and assigning

a different line conﬁ guration (combination of dots and dashes) to the indi-

vidual sound source.

Using lines of various thicknesses to differentiate sound sources is not an

option. This approach will obscure the information of the graph. Varying

line thickness will cause the sound to visually appear to occupy an area of

the vertical axis. This is a state that is only accurate for a few select compo-

nents of sound.

The use of color is not always feasible, but it is the preferred method of

placing a number of sound sources on the same graph. Using numbered

lines or using varied and distinct line conﬁ gurations for each sound source

are the next most ﬂ exible and clear methods of differentiating sound sourc-

es. Combinations of color and line conﬁ gurations will produce the most

organized and most useful graphs. Individual sound sources must always

be easily distinguished on line graphs. Readily identiﬁ able lines that have

been precisely deﬁ ned (by using a key, as described below) will ensure the

clarity and usefulness of the graph.

The same sound sources may be depicted on a number of tiers of a mul-

titier graph. In this case, care must be taken to deﬁ ne each sound source

and to depict the sound sources in the same way on each tier (either by the

same number, color, or line conﬁ guration). This will allow someone read-

ing the graph to quickly and accurately determine the states and activities

Chapter 5

112

of all of the sound sources (or aspects of the sound sources) over time. A

key of the sound sources plotted should be created to ensure this clarity.

A key lists all sound sources of the example and presents how they are

represented on the line graph (see Figure 5-2). This listing of sound sources

with their designations must be included in each line graph that contains

more than one sound source.

The listing of sound sources is one of the ﬁ rst activities undertaken in the

entire evaluation process. A listing of the sources (elements to be analyzed)

will draw the listener into the evaluation process quickly and directly, and it

should become one of the very ﬁ rst steps in evaluating sound.

Plotting Sources Against a Time Line

Plotting the individual sources against the time line, without concern for

levels and rates of activity of the component parts of a sound, will allow the

listener to compile preliminary information on the material without getting

overwhelmed by detail. This process is also an excellent ﬁ rst step in getting

acquainted with the activity of writing down material that is being heard

(the taking of dictation). It may become a common initial activity each time

the listener undertakes a detailed evaluation of a sound event. A reliable

ability to place sources against a time line (and, of course, correctly identi-

fying the time line) will be assumed throughout the remainder of the book.

This process will be repeated, at least conceptually, before almost all future

exercises. This is also an excellent exercise for learning to identify all the

sound sources (instruments and vocals) present in a mix—something that

sounds simple and often proves otherwise.

Listing sound sources is an important ﬁ rst step in many evaluations and

will need to be undertaken as a ﬁ rst step toward plotting sources against

a time line. It is important that all individual sources be identiﬁ ed and list-

ed separately. These individual sources often act independently and were

usually recorded with some degree of separation, giving the recordist an

independent control of the sound that will be evaluated in many ways.

Lists of sound sources should identify all independent vocal parts sepa-

rately. Groups of background vocals presenting one musical idea should be

listed as a single sound source; similarly, groups of stringed instruments

playing one line or musical idea would also be labeled as “strings.” Instru-

ments should be listed by names. When more than one instrument of the

same type is used, the instruments should be numbered either by order

of appearance or by range, with the highest instrument usually the low-

est number. Sounds should not be listed by descriptive terms (lush guitar,

happy ﬂ ute, etc.). If the listener is at a loss as to what to call a sound, using

terms such as “unknown 1” would be appropriate until the sound is recog-

nized. Performing a sound quality evaluation (even a general one) would

allow the listener to further deﬁ ne the sound as “unknown 1, with long ﬁ nal

A System for Evaluating Sound

113

decay.” When the listener does not know the names of instruments, or the

sound sources are very unique, listing sound sources must be undertaken

with care, and will take effort. For example, it would be a great undertaking

to list all sound sources from “Tomorrow Never Knows” by The Beatles.

Many of the song’s sound sources would need to be described in terms that

addressed the sound source or the sound quality.

In working through many of the exercises and graphs of the following chap-

ters, the reader will frequently (1) create a listing of the sound sources in

the example, and (2) create a time line of the event. By adding a third step

of plotting the listed sound sources against the time line, they will be able

to focus more intently on the material being graphed. The reader should

practice Exercise 5-3 (at the end of the chapter) and become comfortable

with the process. The recordist must be able to quickly recognize sound

sources and focus on the activity of each.

Figure 5-3 provides an example of sound sources plotted against a time line.

The listener will be able to follow the ﬁ gure while listening to The Beatles’

“She Said She Said.” Whenever a sound source (an instrument or voice) is

sounding, a line is drawn across that half-measure against the timeline. As

an additional activity, complete the graph by plotting the presence of the

high hat part against the time line.

Figure 5-3

Sound

sources placed

against time line, The

Beatles: “She Said

She Said.”

High Hat

Crash Cymbal

Low Tom

High Tom

Snare Drum

Bass Drum

Hammond Organ

Backup Vocal

Lead Vocal

Lead Guitar

Rhythm Guitar

Bass Guitar

1 3 5 7 9 111315171921232428313335 3840424446

measures:

Intro

Chorus 1

Verse 1 Verse 2 Verse 3

Notating Sounds in Snapshots of Time

Some important components of sound might not change over time. While

they are static, their status may well be a very important characteristic of the

sound event/object. These sound components can be evaluated without a

time line and understood as elements that remain unchanged throughout a

deﬁ ned time period. Sounds are examined for qualities of their component

Chapter 5

114

parts that remain unchanged over the time period, as if examining a snap-

shot of the sound’s existence over the time period.

The location of instruments on a sound stage is one such possibility. While

it is very possible for sound sources to change lateral location or distance

location, sound sources often remain in the same location for extended

periods of time (entire verses or choruses, for example). It is also quite

common for some sound sources to remain in the same location through-

out an entire song.

The graphs used for plotting the components can also be used to show the

static, unchanging states. The

X-axis can be used to provide a place for each

sound source that is present, instead of a time line. Many sources can then

be placed against the same vertical axis. In addition, the diagrams of the

perceived performance environment can also be used to show placement

of sound sources and the dimensions of the sound stage, when appropri-

ate (as will be discussed in Chapter 9).

Summary

Graphs will often need to be supplemented by verbal descriptions to com-

plete evaluations of sound events or sound objects. Simply graphing a

sound does not complete the evaluation.

The contents of the graphs need to be reviewed and then described through

observations of the content and activity of the materials. In all instances,

the language and concepts used to deﬁ ne and describe the sound must be

completely objective in nature. All descriptions refer to the actual levels,

and any changes of levels, of the components of the sound. The descrip-

tions lead to overall observations about the qualities of the sound itself and

its relationships to the other events/objects and the entire recording.

The listener must never use subjective impressions or descriptions of the

sound in the evaluation. Such impressions are unique to each individu-

al, cannot be accurately communicated between individuals (they mean

something different to all people), and do not contribute to an understand-

ing and recognition of the characteristics of the sound. Subjective impres-

sions or descriptions do not contribute pertinent, meaningful information

about the sound for the audio professional.

The next ﬁ ve chapters will take the reader through the individual artistic

elements and perceived parameters of recordings, working through this

system for evaluating sound. The sequence of activities outlined above,

and the process of notating (graphing) sound, will be core activities of

those chapters.

In order to beneﬁ t the most from these chapters, the reader should take

the time to work carefully through the examples and exercises. The many

A System for Evaluating Sound

115

nuances of sound contained in recordings will gradually become more

apparent, and the reader will gradually acquire an ability to talk about

sound in ways that have clear meaning to others. Further, the reader will

ﬁ nd they are better able to understand their own recordings, and better

able to craft recording projects creatively.

Exercises

The following exercises should be practiced until you are comfortable with the

material covered.

Exercise 5-1

Exercise in Graphing Clock Time

Find a recording of a very simple and slow rhythm. Set up a metronome or a

click track on a DAW you can use to establish a steady pulse.

1. Use a marking of MM:60 to establish a pulse clearly in your thoughts and

set up a timeline.

2. Use that pulse to place the notes of the rhythm against the timeline.

3. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 with more complicated examples, and at MM:120

and MM:240.

4. Keep working with these steps until you begin to remember the tempos of

MM:60, 120 and 240.

This process will help you learn the “sound” of these tempos that are

directly related to clock time. This skill will be important for understanding

time issues in critical listening, and will also allow you to be able to calcu-

late time units for compressors, delays, reverbs and other devices. It might

be helpful to note that many band marches are at MM:120; if a person can

clearly remember one of these pieces they may well be able to quickly and

accurately establish a tempo of MM:120, or a pulse every .5 seconds, which

could be very helpful in many situations.

Exercise 5-2

Time Judgment Exercise

Using a digital delay unit and a recording of a high-pitch drum (such as the

snare drum or high tom tracks on the enclosed CD):

1. Route a nondelayed signal to one loudspeaker and a delayed signal to the

other loudspeaker.

2. Delay the signal and perform many repetitions of the sound while chang-

ing time-increments that are easily recognized. Always move by the same

time increment, such as 100 ms, during any given listening session.

Chapter 5

116

3. As conﬁ dence is obtained in being able to accurately judge certain time

units, move to other time units—both smaller and larger—and repeat the

sequence in Step 2.

4. When control of time relationships is accurate within certain deﬁ ned lim-

its and you are conﬁ dent in this ability, test that accuracy by routing both

the direct and delayed signals to both loudspeakers (or to a single loud-

speaker).

5. Continue to work through many repetitions of time increments in a

systematic manner, comparing the qualities of the time relationships of

each listening to previous and successive material, in a logical sequence

(a suggested pattern/sequence: 150 ms, 125 ms, 100 ms, 75 ms, 125 ms,

150 ms).

6. Continue moving to smaller and smaller time units, until consistency

has been achieved at being able to accurately judge time increments of

3 to 5 ms.

Being able to recognize small time units—such as several milliseconds— will

take considerable practice. It is, however, quite possible to develop skill in

recognizing the sound quality of these time units when they are presented as

delay times of repeated sounds. The different time delays will have distinctly

different sound qualities, once you are able to recognize and remember the

individual qualities. These time delays will be heard as “timbres of time.” Time

units will actually have a characteristic sound, as they transform the sound

quality of the reiterated drum sound. These unique sound qualities of sound

reiterations will transform all other sounds in a similar way.

Tracks 26–33 on the enclosed CD present time delays with a snare-drum

sound. The delay times range from 50 ms down to 2 ms. Listening to those

tracks will provide valuable support to learning this material and working

through the above exercise.

Exercise 5-3

Exercise for Plotting the Presence of Sound Sources Against the Time Line

Graph the ﬁ rst few major sections (verse, chorus, etc.) of a piece of popular

music, using the following steps:

1. Compile a list of all the sound sources of the song. Individual percussion

sounds and vocal parts should be listed separately.

2. Create a suitable time line by:

a. determining the pulse (metric grid) of the song;

b. grouping the pulses into measures (weak and strong beats); and

c. plotting those measures on the horizontal (X) axis in increments that

clearly show the material being graphed.

3. Plot the individual sound sources against the time line. Each sound will

have its own location on the vertical axis, making it unnecessary to make

distinctions between the lines of each sound source on the graph. When

A System for Evaluating Sound

117

an instrument is playing, place a line for that instrument in the appro-

priate location against the time line. If the instrument is playing in the

measure, extend the line through the entire measure. Alternately, you can

change this resolution to make note of instruments appearing every half

measure. If still more detail is sought, a smaller time increment could be

used.

4. After several days return to the graph. Check the time line for accuracy

and listen several times again for sound sources. It is not unusual for

sound sources to appear in the music that were not heard in previous

hearings.

5. Listen several more times to check the entrances and exits of the instru-

ments against the time line.

The reader will use this skill on many exercises in the following chapters. Learn-

ing to do this well now will prove very helpful. Further, identifying sound sourc-

es and what they are doing is a very important part of tracking and mixing.

This exercise will also improve a skill the reader will use in production work.

118

6 Evaluating Pitch in Audio

and Music Recordings

Pitch relationships shape musical materials more than the other artistic

elements. This is obvious when we consider melody as a succession of

pitch relationships, and chords/harmony as simultaneously sounding pitch

relationships; the main melody of a song can make a lasting impression on

the listener.

With the exception of percussion instruments, nearly all musical instru-

ments were speciﬁ cally designed to produce many precise variations in

pitch, far fewer variations in timbre, and most have a continuously variable

range of loudness. Most Western music places great emphasis on pitch

information for the communication of the musical message. Pitch is the

central artistic element of most music, with the other artistic elements most

often supporting the activities occurring in pitch relationships.

In evaluating pitch in audio and music recordings, the recordist will work

well beyond traditional concepts of pitch as melody and harmony. An acute

sense of pitch will bring the recording professional to recognize pitch lev-

els, and to identify pitch areas and frequency bands.

Pitch evaluation is used in both analytical and critical listening. In critical

listening perceived pitch is often transferred into frequency calculations.

The analytical listening process relates pitch relationships to the musical

qualities, ideas and message.

The reader will be developing ways of analyzing musical sounds that will

also develop critical listening skills. The same sensations of sound are per-

ceived in each process. How the sound is evaluated (critically versus ana-

lytically) will be the difference.

The pitch analysis concepts presented in this chapter are of particular

importance to sound recordings and for developing the skills of the record-

ing professional. The information gathered will help one to understand the

Evaluating Pitch in Audio and Music Recordings

119

piece of music (analytical listening), and to evaluate sound quality (critical

listening), depending on how the information is applied. Concepts of pitch

that the reader has had much experience with are built upon in this chapter

to introduce new experiences. Pitch area evaluation is an important ﬁ rst

step in understanding and evaluating sound quality, and forming objective

descriptions of what is happening within an isolated sound.

This chapter also presents the processes for evaluating sounds, writing

down observations during listening sessions, and making a time line. These

are important for many activities in upcoming chapters. The reader is encour-

aged to work through exercises and examples with attention to detail of the

information presented and to establish a thorough method of working.

Analytical Systems

Numerous analytical systems have been devised to explain pitch relation-

ships in music. These systems are made up of evaluation criteria that vary

considerably between systems and are more or less speciﬁ c to certain types

of music. Generally, then, these systems can only be useful for examining

certain styles or types of music. Any single analytical system may or may

not yield information pertinent to the music being evaluated.

The recordist will need to recognize and apply the appropriate analytical

system to study the pitch relationships of a particular piece of music, if such

an evaluation is expected of them. This is rarely required. Many recordists

do, however, innately sense the relationships that are explained through

musical analysis. Understanding pitch relationships, and especially har-

monic progressions, can often greatly assist the recording professional in

crafting a recording.

Information about the artistic element of pitch levels and relationships will

be related to (1) the relative dominance of certain pitch levels (which relate

to tonal/key centers and chord progressions), (2) the relative register place-

ment of pitch levels and patterns (related to arranging and orchestration,

and will be later discussed as pitch density and timbral balance), or (3) pitch

relationships: patterns of successive intervals (motives and melodies), rela-

tionships of those patterns, and patterns and relationships of simultaneous

intervals (chords and progressions).

Study of the many systems used to analyze pitch relationships is well

beyond the scope of this book. Theories about music attempt to explain

the analytical listening experience, and to extract basic information about

the structure and form of the music. The recordist can use such insights to

control and craft the sound qualities of the recording so they will support

and directly enhance how the recording process can best deliver musical

ideas to the listener.

Chapter 6

120

Realizing a Sense of Pitch

Everyone has an internal pitch reference. This is a sense of pitch level that

is present unconsciously within each individual. Though it is often undevel-

oped, this reference can be brought to the consciousness of the recording

professional. This will, however, require focused attention and concerted

efforts over a period of time. The skill acquired will be well worth the time

and effort involved.

Every individual is different and has a unique internal pitch reference. The

things that make us unique human beings likely also contribute to our

unique sense of pitch/frequency. What goes into making this reference is

our own complex set of experiences, which vary markedly between indi-

viduals. It is often related to the timbre of certain sounds and uses our

exceptional ability of remembering the correct sounds of a particular sound

source. Therefore, the reference itself is often related to an instrument one

has played for a considerable length of time or to the sound and/or feel

of one’s own voice. Some people identify strongly with certain pieces of

music and can use their memory of the pitch level (tonal center) of that

piece of music as a reliable reference.

The process of realizing and then developing one’s unique sense of pitch

can seem perplexing, daunting, or simply impossible. This is something

that may at ﬁ rst seem beyond human capability, simply because it is

beyond our own experience. This is the ﬁ rst of the skills we will work to

acquire that requires the reader to make a leap of faith; to believe some-

thing is possible is the ﬁ rst step toward making it so. One

must become confused and grapple with the confusion

in order to learn.

The reader should work through the Pitch Reference

Exercise at the end of the chapter over a period of sev-

eral weeks. Daily attention with a number of 5-, 10- or 15-

minute work sessions will yield results quickly. The reader

should always try to ﬁ nd a quiet location where they will

not be distracted.

This exercise will bring the reader to develop a consistent and reliable sense

relative pitch. This relative pitch may change by 5% to 10% depending on

mood, energy level, distractions, or countless other factors. Still the core

of the individual’s sense of pitch will be present and can be relied upon

for speciﬁ c tasks or for general use. For tasks that require precision, peri-

odic checks of the reference level for accuracy may be necessary especially

in the beginning. As with any skill, the more it is used the greater it will

be reﬁ ned. Once the skill is acquired, reﬁ ning and maintaining the skill of

remembering a reference pitch level can become intuitive.

Listen . . .

to tracks 4-13

for potential reference frequencies

and reference pitches.

Evaluating Pitch in Audio and Music Recordings

121

Recordists have cultivated this sense of pitch to a reliable reference for

many practical uses. As examples, it is commonly used to identify frequen-

cy levels (such as what is required to immediately determine an appropriate

equalization [EQ] setting). It is also used to keep performers playing in tune

or to keep tuning constant throughout a project, especially for an ensem-

ble without a keyboard. All of the judgments the recording professional

makes related to pitch and frequency will be enhanced with a stable sense

of pitch/frequency gained through understanding one’s own internal pitch

reference.

Recognizing Pitch Levels

The internal pitch reference is an important aid in recognizing frequencies

and pitches throughout the hearing range. This reference will now be used

to help identify the general locations of frequencies and pitches in relation

to carefully devised pitch registers.

Figure 6-1

Pitch

registers against the

grand staff of music

notation.

Critical listening and analytical listening deﬁ ne perceived pitch differently.

Frequency estimation through pitch perception allows for critical-listening

observations, while the same sound will need to be thought of as pitch

relationships to understand analytical observations. The

pitch/frequency

registers

(Figures 6-1, 6-2 and 6-3) will be used to estimate the relative level

of the pitch material and to allow the information to be directly transferred

between these two contexts.

Chapter 6

122

Figure 6-2

Pitch and

frequency ranges of

registers.

LOW up to C

up to 65.41 Hz

LOW-MID D

to G

73.42 to 196 Hz

MID A

to A

220 to 440 Hz

MID-UPPER B

to E

493.88 to 1,318.51 Hz

HIGH F

to C

1,396.91 to 4,186.01 Hz

VERY HIGH C

and above 4,186.01 and above

Pitch and frequency estimation are fundamental skills

that must be developed by the audio professional. The

use of pitch/frequency registers will assist the reader in

developing this skill of identifying perceived pitch and

frequency levels. These registers will serve as reference

areas and will provide a basis for a general description

of perceived frequency and pitch levels. The registers will

be used in many of the evaluation processes that follow

and should be committed to memory. They will provide

meaningful reference levels for many listening activities. Further, learning

the frequency equivalents of pitches will also be invaluable to the reader,

both in these studies and in the practice of recording.

It will be helpful to relate this material to actual sound sources. The ranges

of human singing voices stretch from the

low-mid and mid registers (male

voices) to the mid and mid-upper registers (female voices). Most musi-

cal activity occurs in the

mid and mid-upper registers. This is where many

instruments sound their fundamental frequencies, and where most melod-

ic lines and most closely spaced chords are placed in musical practice. Take

a moment to notice the frequency ranges spanned by these registers.

The sibilant sounds of the human voice occur primarily in the

high register,

typically around 2 to 3 kHz. Within the

very high register, humans have

the ability to hear nearly two and one-half octaves. While this register is

not playable by acoustic instruments and by human voices, much spectral

information is often in this register.

The reader should work through Exercise 6-2 (at the end of the chapter) to

begin developing skill at estimating pitch levels and octave placements.

This is designed to take the reader from making general judgments to iden-

tifying precise pitch levels. The boundaries between registers are purpose-

fully large to give the reader a sense of moving from the general to the

speciﬁ c and to acquire the skill with meaningful successes along the way.

This skill is central to many of the evaluations commonly performed by all

people in audio and will be used throughout the remainder of this book. The

listener can easily transfer perceived pitch level into frequency estimation

through using the above registers. The reader should practice transferring

various pitch levels to frequency and the reverse.

Listen . . .

to tracks 14-18

for pitch register boundaries per-

formed on a piano.

Evaluating Pitch in Audio and Music Recordings

123

Figure 6-3

Pitch/ frequency registers in relation to keyboard with pitches, octave designations, and

equivalent frequencies.

4186

3951

3520

3136

2794

2637

2349

2039

1976

1760

1568

1397

1318.5

1174.7

1046.5

987.8

880

784

698.5

659.3

587.3

523.3

493.9

440

392

349.2

329.6

293.7

261.6

246.9

220

196

174.6

164.8

146.8

130.8

123.5

110

87.5

82.4

73.4

65.4

61.7

43.7

41.2

36.7

32.7

30.9

27.5

3729

3322

2960

2489

2218

1865

1661

1480

1244.5

1108.7

932.3

830.6

740

622.3

554.4

466.2

415.3

370

311.1

277.2

233.1

207.7

185

155.6

138.6

116.5

103.8

92.5

77.8

69.3

58.3

51.9

46.3

38.9

34.7

29.1

Frequency (Hertz)

Octave

Designation

Middle C

4,186 Hz

1397 Hz

1318.5 Hz

493.9 Hz

440 Hz

220 Hz

196 Hz

73.4 Hz

65.4 Hz

16,744 Hz

8,372 Hz

20.6 Hz

VERY HIGHHIGHMID-UPPERMIDLOW-MIDLOW

Chapter 6

124

It is possible for the experienced listener to consistently estimate pitch/fre-

quency level to within an interval of a minor third (one-quarter of an octave).

After considerable practice and experience, and gaining a clear sense of an

internal reference pitch, even greater accuracy is possible. Within several

weeks of thoughtful effort, the reader should be consistent within a perfect

ﬁ fth (a bit over one-half an octave), and accuracy will continue to increase

at a rapid pace with regular study.

Pitch Area and Frequency Band Recognition

Recordists must often bring their attention to a speciﬁ c range of frequen-

cies, or frequency bands, to identify some aspect of sound quality or equip-

ment performance. This section will present a rough equivalent in musical

contexts that can be used to develop this skill and more.

Many percussion-related sounds occupy a

pitch area, not a speciﬁ c pitch.

These sounds are perceived as existing in an area between two boundar-

ies. The boundaries may, at times, be unstable and changing in pitch and

dynamic level, and secondary pitch area(s) may also be present. These

sounds have noise-like qualities and nonperiodic waveforms in many

respects, but still contain some pitch quality. The sounds have some har-

monic relationships (often inexact) between pitch areas and a dominant

pitch area to provide a sense of a dominant frequency/pitch “area” and not

a precise pitch level.

These sounds can be evaluated and deﬁ ned by:

1. the density (amount) of pitch information within the pitch area,

2. the width of the pitch area (the distance between the two boundary

pitches),

3. the presence of secondary pitch areas, and

4. the dynamic relationships of the primary and any secondary pitch

areas.

Some sounds will have several separated pitch areas. The different pitch

areas of the sound will be at different dynamic levels and have different

densities (the amount and closeness of spacing of the pitch information

within the pitch areas). One pitch area will dominate the sound and be the

primary pitch area (similar to a fundamental frequency). The other pitch

areas will be secondary pitch areas. These are components of the sound’s

spectrum. Some areas dominate, and others will be softer, and much soft-

er. The bandwidth of pitch areas (distance between the lowest and highest

frequencies that create the boundaries of the pitch area) are regions of fre-

quency/pitch information and activity that we recognize as being united by

density (amount of information) and loudness (have a reasonably uniform

level). The reader should focus on the perspective of the spectrum of the

sound source, listening for areas of density, the boundaries of those areas,

and the gaps between them.

Evaluating Pitch in Audio and Music Recordings

125

Evaluating the pitch areas of several percussion sounds will develop a num-

ber of important listening skills. Frequency and pitch estimation (recogni-

tion) will be reﬁ ned, and the listener will take the skills of the last section

to a more detailed level of perspective. The focus will now be on identify-

ing pitch/frequency levels within the spectrum of the source—using sound

sources that allow us to approach this information in a more noticeable

and higher level of perspective. This is a ﬁ rst step toward identifying subtle

aspects of sound quality and spectrum (that will be greatly reﬁ ned later).

Further, this study will be accomplished without the added tasks of a time

line, as the graph will sum spectral information throughout the sound’s

duration. The reader will also make some rough observations on dynamic

levels. This skill will also be greatly reﬁ ned later.

It is likely that pitch area analysis will be unlike anything

the reader has done in the past. Few reference points will

be available for the listener to draw upon, other than the

pitch estimation skills acquired above. Difﬁ culties and

frustrations are to be expected, along with great satisfac-

tion with acquiring a very useful skill that will be used

and improved throughout one’s audio career.

To perform an analysis of pitch areas, sounds are plotted

on a

pitch area analysis graph. The graph incorporates:

1. The register designations for the Y-axis;

2. A space on the X-axis of the graph that is dedicated to each sound

instead of the passage of time (since this evaluation sums all informa-

tion during the sound’s duration);

3. The pitch areas, which are boxed off by upper and lower boundaries of

their bandwidths, in relation to these two axes;

4. The density of each pitch area designated by a number within each box

that relates to a relative scale from very dense to very sparse; and

5. Assigning a number to the relative dynamic levels of pitch areas, espe-

cially important to identifying the predominant (primary) pitch area

(dynamics will receive detailed coverage in the next chapter).

Figure 6-4 presents the pitch areas of the prominent bass drum sound

found in The Beatles’ “Come Together” (

1 version) at 0:34.

The percussion sound is composed of four pitch areas. The primary pitch

area is the second from the bottom. It is moderately dense and is the

loudest and dominant area. The density of the lowest pitch area is a bit

more dense, but considerably softer. The area between 167 and 265 Hz is

moderately dense and a bit louder than the lowest area, and not as loud as

the primary pitch area. The highest pitch area (approximately 315–395 Hz)

has a rather sparse density and is at the lowest loudness level of all four

pitch areas. It is interesting to note that the lower boundaries of the four

pitch areas are nearly whole number multiples and harmonically related,

Listen . . .

to tracks 19-25

for isolated drum and cymbal sounds

that can be used as source material

for pitch area evaluations.

Chapter 6

126

but far enough away to create strong noise elements. These types of rela-

tionships are common for drum resonances and head vibrations.

Figure 6-4

Pitch area

analysis of the bass

drum sound from

The Beatles, “Come

Together.”

First Number 5 Very Dense

4 Dense

3 Moderately Dense

2 Sparse

1 Very Sparse

Second Number 5 Very Loud

4 Loud

3 Moderately Loud

2 Soft

1 Very Soft

LOW LOW-MID MID MID-UPPER HIGH

2,1

3,3

3,4

4,2

Bass

Drum

1396

1319

494

440

220

196

395

315

265

167

128

39Hz

The pitch area graph and the objective descriptions of density and dynamic

relationships of the pitch areas provide much useful and universally per-

ceived information about the sound. Meaningful communication about

this sound is possible with this information.

Next, the Pitch Area Analysis Exercise (Exercise 6-3 at the end of the chapter)

should be performed until the material is learned. The reader is encouraged

to evaluate drums and cymbals of a variety of sizes directly from music

recordings, after working through some isolated percussion sounds (such

as the ones found on the enclosed CD).

A number of percussion sounds from the drum solo of The Beatles’ “The

End” appear in Figure 6-5. The reader should examine the dynamic rela-

tionships of the pitch areas and observe their densities. Study the example

carefully, seeking to identify the boundaries of the pitch area, and conﬁ rm

Evaluating Pitch in Audio and Music Recordings

127

the density information presented. Once the pitch areas can be identiﬁ ed,

the reader can observe the dynamic relationships of the pitch areas.

Figure 6-5

Drum

sounds from The

Beatles, “The End.”

First Number 5 Very Dense

4 Dense

3 Moderately Dense

2 Sparse

1 Very Sparse

Second Number 5 Very Loud

4 Loud

3 Moderately Loud

2 Soft

1 Very Soft

LOW LOW-MID MID MID-UPPER HIGH

3,4

2,4

2,2

Tom 1

8.7 sec.

1396

1319

494

440

220

196

749

630

267

181

132

3,3

500

397

2,2

3,2

2,4

Tom 2

9.6 sec.

891

794

315

187

157

1,2

530

386

2,3

3,2

4,4

Tom 3

10.8 sec.

841

470

190

135

105

2,2

375

223

2,3

4,2

Kick Drum

30.8 sec.

106

2,3

198

118

4186

The reader will be able to apply the skills and concepts of pitch area to

the recognition of frequency bands in critical listening applications. The

information for evaluating the states and changes of frequency levels

is readily deduced from perceived pitch information. The skills gained

through the recognition of pitch areas and frequency bands will later be

directly applied to the evaluation of timbre and sound quality. In fact,

these pitch area analyses are rudimentary timbre analyses.

Chapter 6

128

Figure 6-6

Crash

cymbal sounds from

The Beatles’ “Come

Together” and

“Something” (both

from 1).

First Number 5 Very Dense

4 Dense

3 Moderately Dense

2 Sparse

1 Very Sparse

Second Number 5 Very Loud

4 Loud

3 Moderately Loud

2 Soft

1 Very Soft

MID MID-UPPER HIGH

3,4

Crash

“Come Together”

3:47

1396

1319

494

440

220

2370

1330

2,3

920

561

Crash

“Something”

0:03

2,2

891

595

4186

VERY HIGH

3,3

6350

3770

2,2

14,200

7550

1,1

1580

944

3,4

6720

2820

2,3

13,400

7620

A common critical listening situation is to compare two sounds. Figure 6-6

compares the crash cymbal from two different songs. Notice the charac-

teristics of the sounds through careful listening to identify pitch areas and

their densities. From the graph we can see the areas are similar in location

and nearly identical in their densities. Some areas have markedly different

relative dynamic levels.

As skill increases, the listener will gradually come to understand and

recognize slight differences present in the spectra of similar sounds.

Eventually the reader will arrive at the point where evaluations of the high

hat and crash cymbal sounds from four different releases of the song “Let It

Be” can be compared (listed in the Discography). The reader is encouraged

to listen carefully to these sounds. The sounds change within each song

and are slightly (to markedly) different in each recording. The reader will

notice many striking differences and perhaps a few of the many subtleties.

These differences will gradually seem more and more signiﬁ cant. Ultimate-

ly, the reader will recognize the sounds as very different and will perceive

the details of their sound qualities.

Evaluating Pitch in Audio and Music Recordings

129

Pitch Area and Pitch Density

Pitch area evaluation of a single sound leads us to consider the similar

concept of pitch density. Pitch density is the range of pitches spanned by

a musical idea plus the spectrum of the sound source playing it. It is the

pitch area of the musical idea. This connection between pitch area as the

spectrum of a sound and the musical material being presented is important

to many activities in mixing and to understanding recordings.

Figure 6-7 presents four percussion sounds from “Here Comes the Sun.”

Listen to this recording and recognize the pitch areas of these instruments.

In your next hearings, notice how the instruments compare to others in

terms of their pitch areas—or spectral content. You will be listening at the

level of perspective of the individual sound sources, at one level higher

where you can perceive each source as being equal, and at the highest

level of the overall texture of the recording. Notice:

• the ways the percussion sounds blend with others that occupy similar

pitch areas;

• the way sounds are more easily distinguished when they occupy pitch

areas that are different from others;

• that certain pitch registers of the overall texture have more information

than other registers;

• that the amount of activity in certain pitch registers, within the overall

texture, changes from one moment to the next;

• that different “left” to “right” locations of the stereo ﬁ eld have different

pitch areas present and absent.

This will be explored in much greater depth in Chapter 10 and later readings

and exercises. Listen one last time to these four sounds and try to identify

the pitch areas and their boundaries and densities, and compare the pitch

areas within the sounds for their relative loudnesses. This is your beginning

work in analyzing the components of a sound’s timbre and sound quality.

Chapter 6

130

Figure 6-7

Four per-

cussion sounds from

The Beatles’ “Here

Comes the Sun.”

First Number 5 Very Dense

4 Dense

3 Moderately Dense

2 Sparse

1 Very Sparse

Second Number 5 Very Loud

4 Loud

3 Moderately Loud

2 Soft

1 Very Soft

HIGHMID-UPPERMIDLOW-MIDLOW VERY HIGH

3,3

15,000

9200

4.4

16,200

10,000

5,4

8500

5000

4,4

7500

4000

2,1

1400

500

2,2

1330

730

4,5

5000

1800

3,2

940

660

4,3

517

417

3,2

260

196

2,2

1330

330

4,4

160

4,3

Snare

Drum

0:25

Bass

Drum

1:04

Crash

Cymbal

0:28

Hi Hat

0:32

4186 Hz

F6 1397 Hz

E6 1319 Hz

C10



B4 494 Hz

A4 440 Hz



A3 220 Hz

G3 196 Hz



D2 73 Hz

G2 65 Hz



(23 Hz)

Evaluating Pitch in Audio and Music Recordings

131

Melodic Contour

Graphing melodic contour will assist the recordist in a number of ways. First,

at the early stages of the listening-skill development, graphing melodic con-

tour will help develop skills in placing pitch/frequency changes and levels

against time. These same skills will later be used in the much more detailed

(and initially more difﬁ cult) task of evaluating pitch-related information in

timbre/sound quality and environmental characteristics evaluations.

Learning to plot melodic contours against a time line will be productive in

developing the skills of recognizing pitch levels, of perceiving metric units

and rhythm of time, and of mapping pitch contours. These skills directly

transfer into many of the listening functions of the audio professional.

Second, recognizing the contour (or shape) of the melodic line is impor-

tant to understanding certain pieces of music or musical ideas. In certain

pieces of music, the contour of a melodic line is perceived instead of the

individual intervals. When the melodic line is performed very rapidly (as is

easily accomplished with technology), the perception of the line fuses into

an outline or shape. The series of intervals that comprise the melodic line

are not perceived. The contour of the melodic line is instead perceived.

The melodic contour graph allows the contour of the musical idea to be

recognized and evaluated for its unique qualities.

Graphing Material against a Time Line

Nearly all exercises in the book graph material against a time line. The

sequence for establishing a time line will now be examined. This should

be studied carefully, as the recording professional is continually engaged

in listening to material to notice changes in sound over time. This process

will deﬁ ne the activities of any artistic element against a time line. This

sequence of activities will be applied to both musical (analytical) and criti-

cal listening contexts. It will be only slightly modiﬁ ed for each exercise in

the following chapters, and the reader should become familiar with the

order of activity:

1. During the ﬁ rst hearing(s) of the material, focus listening activity to

establish the length of the time line. At the same time, notice promi-

nent activity of the material (in this case melodic contour) and its place-

ment against the time line.

2. Check the time line for accuracy and make any alterations. Establish

a complete list of sound sources (instruments and voices), and then

place those sound sources against the completed time line.

3. Notice the activity of the material being graphed for boundaries of

levels (here, the highest and lowest pitches of the example, and the

smallest changes between pitch levels) and speed of activity (noting

the fastest changes of levels). The boundary of speed will establish

Chapter 6

132

the smallest time unit required to clearly show the smallest signiﬁ cant

change of the material (melodic contour). The boundaries of levels of

activity will establish the smallest increment of the

Y-axis required to

plot the smallest change of the material. This step will establish the

perspective of the graph, which is the graph’s level of detail. The

Y-axis

should allow some space above and below the highest or lowest level

for the material to be clearly observed, and for the possibility of adding

new material or corrections in that area of the graph.

4. Begin plotting the activity of the material (melodic contour) on the

graph. First, establish prominent points of reference within the activity;

these reference points might be the highest or lowest levels, the begin-

ning and ending levels, points immediately after or before silences, or

any other points that stand out from the remainder of the activity; place

these levels correctly against the time line. Use the points of reference

to calculate the activity of the preceding and following material.

5. To complete the plotting of the activity of the artistic element, alternate

focus on the contour, speed, and amounts of level changes.

6. The evaluation is complete when the smallest signiﬁ cant detail has

been heard, understood, and added to the graph.

Listening and Writing

Many hearings of the example will be involved for each of the steps above.

Each listening should seek speciﬁ c new information and should conﬁ rm

what has already been noticed about the material. Before listening to the

material, the listener must be prepared to extract certain information. Lis-

teners must have a clear idea of what they will be listening to and/or for,

and work to keep from being distracted. Attention should be focused at

a speciﬁ c level of perspective and on a speciﬁ c task. Listeners must both

conﬁ rm their previous observations and be receptive to new discoveries

about the example. Previous observations will be checked often, while

seeking new information.

Listening to only small, speciﬁ c portions of the example may assist certain

observations at certain points in the evaluation process. In these situations,

the listener should intersperse listenings to the entire example with the

rehearings of small sections, to be certain consistency is being maintained

throughout the evaluation and to maintain proper perspective.

The reader should very rarely write observations while listening. Instead,

the reader should concentrate on the material and attempt to memorize

their observations. This activity will develop auditory memory and will ulti-

mately greatly reduce the number of hearings required to evaluate sounds,

and improve skill. When the recording/sound has stopped, the reader

should recall what was heard and only then write. If the material is not

clearly remembered, listen again, perhaps to a shorter segment.

Evaluating Pitch in Audio and Music Recordings

133

One must ﬁ rst recognize what has been heard before it can be written

down. This process is about recognizing what is heard and making a writ-

ten record of the experience. The reader should try to make the sequence

“hear, recognize, remember, write” automatic.

Melodic Contour Graph

The shape of the melodic line is plotted on a melodic contour graph. The

graph is composed of:

1. Pitch area register designations for the

Y-axis, using the registers need-

ed to clearly show the activity of the musical example;

2. The X-axis of the graph is dedicated to a time line divided into appro-

priate time units of a metric grid or real time (depending on the mate-

rial and context);

3. Each sound source is plotted as a single line against the two axes (the

melodic contour is the actual shape of this line); and

4. If more than one sound source is plotted on the same graph, a key

should be devised and included with the graph to identify the lines

with the sound sources.

Figure 6-8

Melodic

contour graph—

The Beatles’ “Wild

Honey Pie,” be ginning

at 0:53.

LOW-MID MID MID-UPPER

1319

494

440

220

196

234

23 4

234

Consider the melodic contour of the classical guitar line from

The Beatles

(the “White Album”), that concludes “Wild Honey Pie” and provides transi-

tional material to “The Continuing Story of Bungalow Bill” (Figure 6-8). The

melodic line is performed too quickly to be heard as a melody composed of

intervals. Instead, this type of fast melodic gesture fuses into a shape or a

contour. As an exercise, check Figure 6-8 for accuracy of shape, detail, and

Chapter 6

134

identify some of the graphed pitch/frequency levels. Chords begin and end

the example, and are clearly shown as several lines occurring simultane-

ously against the time line.

The Melodic Contour Analysis Exercise (Exercise 6-4) will reﬁ ne this skill.

The reader is encouraged to work through several additional recorded

examples to become comfortable with this activity. This graph is an impor-

tant bridge between traditional music dictation (and notation) and the

graphs and processes of this system.

Melodic gestures of this type are very common in music. They commonly

appear from heavy metal guitar solos, to eighteenth- and nineteenth-cen-

tury keyboard music (especially the works of Chopin, Liszt, and works in

the Rococo style). Transcribing fast melodic passages into melodic contour

graphs will provide the reader with practice in developing the following

skills required of recordists:

• pitch recognition (estimation),

• placing pitch/frequency levels correctly into pitch registers,

• recognizing and calculating pitch changes, and

• placing pitch changes against a time line.

These skills will be used and further developed in evaluating sound quality

and environmental characteristics in later chapters.

Exercises

The following exercises should be practiced until you are comfortable with the

material covered.

Exercise 6-1

Pitch Reference Exercise

Development of a personal pitch reference requires daily attention with a num-

ber of 5-, 10-, or 15-minute work sessions. With focused effort this exercise will

yield results quickly. The enclosed CD has some potential reference pitches.

1. First you will need to become aware of your personal pitch reference. You

may most likely be able to accomplish this as follows:

a. Exploring your experiences as a performer can turn up a signiﬁ cant

memory. People who have played an instrument long enough will often

have certain pitches in memory that are related to that instrument (es-

pecially when playing it). Guitarists often know the sound of an “E”;

trumpet players a “B-ﬂ at”; violinists an “A”; and so forth. You can make

use of this pitch reference if you have this experience. Think carefully

about the tuning pitch of your instrument or some other pitch level you

Evaluating Pitch in Audio and Music Recordings

135

feel drawn to, and clearly identify the pitch. Now play the pitch, listen

to it carefully, and work to internalize it as a reliable reference.

b. Paying close attention to your natural speaking voice, speak carefully,

but deliberately, and try to remove any stress from your voice box.

Pay close attention to your inﬂ ections and notice when you are caus-

ing the pitch of your voice to go up and down. Finally, bring your

attention to identify the pitch of your voice where it is operating with-

out resistance, and where it is not being forced up or down in pitch.

In this monotone, if properly produced, is the natural pitch of your

voice. This can often serve as a reliable pitch reference.

c. Vocalizing or singing freely to ﬁ nd the pitch level where your voice

causes your chest cavity to resonate. This will require you to pay close

attention to the sensations of your body for a fullness to develop

in the chest cavity. The voice should then be swept through your

comfortable singing range to ﬁ nd the pitch that creates the greatest

fullness. That level of greatest fullness would be “your” pitch, which

might serve as a reference.

d. Other pitch references are possible, such as drums or speciﬁ c pieces

of music. These are unusually unique to the individual. At times these

can be easily identiﬁ ed or reﬁ ned.

2. If your pitch reference is based on your voice, make a note of the pitch

level you identiﬁ ed. Repeat the process of identifying this level four or

ﬁ ve times over two or three days to validate the level. You will eventually

identify a speciﬁ c and consistent pitch level.

3. Now, listen to your reference pitch often throughout several days. A few

times per day, stop your normal activity to sing, play, and listen to that

pitch level. Use a piano, pitch pipe, tuning fork, or another instrument to

play your pitch. Sing it frequently and become accustomed to the place-

ment of that pitch in your voice. Work to bring yourself to hear the pitch

in your mind before singing it. With this, you are bringing your sense of

pitch into your consciousness.

4. Next, try to consciously carry your reference pitch with you throughout

the day. Take ﬁ ve minutes at four or ﬁ ve set times throughout the day to

sing your pitch level and check it for accuracy. Before singing, quiet your

thoughts and bring your attention to your voice or to your memory of the

pitch. Do not sing a pitch unless you are conﬁ dent you have a memory of

the pitch. If you do not have a memory of the pitch, return to Step 3 for

more practice. Sing the pitch in your memory and check it. Don’t allow

yourself to get frustrated by wrong pitches. Everyone will make mistakes

at this stage. By evaluating your mistakes you can learn from them. Keep

a record of the pitch you sang—high or low, size of interval off, etc. Look

for patterns and try to identify what caused the errors.

5. Remember, this exercise will greatly enhance a skill you will use through-

out your career in audio.

Chapter 6

136

Exercise 6-2

Pitch Level Estimation Exercise

The enclosed CD presents the boundaries of the pitch registers played on a

piano. These may be of assistance in learning these boundaries.

1. Working with a keyboard instrument or a tone generator, practice listen-

ing to the boundaries of the registers. Seek to remember the sounds of

those boundaries, and remember the pitch names and frequency levels of

the several pitches that make up those boundaries.

2. At this point it will be helpful to work with another person. While this

other person performs pitches at the boundaries between registers (on a

keyboard or other device or instrument), identify those boundaries. Main-

tain a record of your mistakes so that you can evaluate them and make

adjustments.

3. Once conﬁ dence has been established in recognizing the general areas

encompassed by the registers, begin playing individual pitches against the

pitch registers. Identify the pitch register of the sound.

4. Finally, work to identify where pitches are sounding within the registers

(i.e., the upper third of low, or the lower quarter of mid). Throughout

these steps, you must rely solely on your memory of the pitch/frequency

registers in making these judgments.

Exercise 6-3

Pitch Area Analysis Exercise

Identify an instrument you want to evaluate—most people ﬁ nd drums are

easiest in beginning attempts. The enclosed CD has a number of drum and

cymbal sounds that will serve this purpose very well. You might wish to set

your CD player to repeat the track.

1. Determine the most prominent pitch area by deﬁ ning the lower boundary

ﬁ rst, then the upper boundary of the area (a steep ﬁ lter can be helpful in

determining these boundaries during beginning studies).

2. Determine any secondary areas of concentrated activity (these will be

identiﬁ ed by either width, density, or dynamic prominence of the pitch

area), by identifying the lowest and then the highest boundary.

3. Repeat the process for all other pitch areas present. The speciﬁ c frequen-

cies/pitches of the boundaries are often audible, despite the sound not

having an audible fundamental frequency. These pitches/frequencies

should be identiﬁ ed and noted on the graph.

4. Evaluate the densities of the pitch areas and incorporate that informa-

tion into the graph (this is the general amount of pitch/frequency activity

Evaluating Pitch in Audio and Music Recordings

137

within the pitch area and is noted on a numbering scale from very dense

to very sparse).

5. Finally, identify the dynamic relationships between the pitch areas within

the sounds. Describe this information as part of the analysis (these are

the general dynamic relationships of the area and are noted on a number

scale identifying the relative loudness of the pitch areas).

Exercise 6-4

Melodic Contour Analysis Exercise

Find a recording with an instrumental melodic line that is performed too

quickly to be heard as individual pitches. It is best for the melodic line to be

at least two measures, or ﬁ ve seconds, in duration.

1. Determine the time line of the example, including the appropriate time

units (clock time or meter) and the length of the time line. Make note of

prominent pitch/frequency levels.

2. Begin plotting the melodic contour against the time line by identifying

prominent pitch levels and placing them at precise locations on the time

line. Check the time line for accuracy of length.

3. Work to establish as many reference pitches as possible, and the high-

est and lowest pitches of the line (these will identify the upper and lower

limits of the Y-axis). Identify the fastest change of pitch level (this will

become the smallest time unit the graph needs to clearly present, and will

determine the appropriate division of the X-axis).

4. Draw the melodic contour graph using the X and Y axes determined in

Step 3.

5. Locate the reference pitches on the graph at the appropriate locations

against the time line.

6. Fill in the remaining pitch information, making certain to check observa-

tions regularly. The graph is completed when the last noticeable pitch

change is incorporated into the graph.

138

7 Evaluating Loudness in

Audio and Music Recordings

Loudness has traditionally been used in musical contexts to assist in the

expressive qualities of musical ideas. This function of dynamics helps shape

the direction of a musical idea, helps delineate separate musical ideas (usu-

ally in relation to their importance to the musical message), assists in creat-

ing nuance in the expressive qualities of the performance, and/or it may add

drama to the musical moment. In all of these cases, dynamics have func-

tioned in supportive roles in the communication of the musical message.

The recording process has given the recordist more precise control over

dynamics than exist in live acoustic performances. This control has brought

audio recordings to have additional relationships of dynamics and the

potential of placing more musical importance on dynamic relationships.

An example of a new relationship of dynamics is the occurrence of contra-

dictory cues between the loudness level at which a sound was performed

during the initial recording (tracking) and the dynamic level at which the

sound is heard in the ﬁ nal musical texture (the mix). The recordist must be

aware of all relationships of dynamic levels, both those that are naturally

occurring and those caused by the recording/reproduction process, and of

the possibility that dynamic levels and relationships may function on any

hierarchical level of the musical structure.

When most people think of mixing, they think of setting loudness levels of

instruments and voices (sound sources). There is much more to loudness

in recording. The dynamic alterations in mixing are only part of what is

covered in this chapter. Program dynamic contour and overall levels are

important aspects of the recordist’s work and are covered. In Chapter 8

loudness will be considered again as a part of sound quality/timbre evalu-

ation, as we look at dynamic envelope and spectral envelope after shifting

our level of perspective. No matter the level of perspective, a reference

dynamic level (RDL) is required for judging loudness levels.

Evaluating Loudness in Audio and Music Recordings

139

The recording process places unique critical and analytical listening require-

ments on the recordist in the area of the evaluation of loudness. The record-

ist must be able to focus on changes in dynamics at all levels of perspec-

tive and to quickly switch focus between those levels. The recordist must

also be able to use the skills of identifying loudness relationships, switching

between listening to the sound itself out of context (using critical listening)

and listening to the sound within its musical context (analytical listening).

Much confusion often accompanies beginning attempts to perceive, fol-

low, and graph dynamic changes. The listener must remain focused on the

act of perceiving and deﬁ ning changes in loudness levels. In the mix these

are the dynamic levels of instruments/voices and their relationships to one

another. Listeners must not allow themselves to be distracted or misled.

The listener must be conscious, and ever mindful, of not confusing other,

easily misleading information as changes in dynamic levels. Some aspects

of sound that are often confused for dynamics are distance cues, timbral

complexity, performance intensity, sound-source pitch register, any infor-

mation that draws the attention (focus) of the listener (such as a text, sud-

den entrance of an instrument), environmental cues, and speed of musical

information.

It is common for sounds most prominent in the listener’s focus not to be

the loudest sounds in the musical texture. Loudness itself does not cre-

ate or ensure prominence of the material. It comes as a surprise to many

people that the most prominent sound in the listener’s attention is often

NOT the sound with the highest dynamic level.

This chapter seeks to deﬁ ne actual loudness levels in musical contexts

(dynamics), with the exception of the ﬁ nal section. In that section, the actu-

al loudness of the musical parts as musical balance will be compared to

performance intensity (the loudness of the sound sources when they were

performed in the recording process).

Reference Levels and the Hierarchy of Dynamics

Dynamics have traditionally been described by imprecise terms such as

very loud (fortissimo), soft (piano), medium loud (mezzo forte), etc. These

terms do not provide adequate information to deﬁ ne the loudness level of

the sound source. They merely provide a vocabulary to communicate rela-

tive values.

The artistic element of dynamics in a piece of music is judged in relation to

context. Dynamic levels are gauged in relation to (1) the overall, conceptual

dynamic/intensity level of the piece of music, (2) the sounds occurring

simultaneously with a sound source, and (3) the sounds that immedi-

ately follow and precede a particular sound source. In this way, loudness

is perceived as relationships between sound sources and in relation to a

Chapter 7

140

reference level. Evaluation is more precise, and it is only possible to com-

municate meaningful information about dynamic levels, when a reference

level is deﬁ ned.

Reference Dynamic Level

The impression of an overall or global intensity level of a piece of music will

be the primary reference level for making judgments concerning dynamics.

This level is arrived at through our impression of the intensity level of the

performance of the work as a single idea. It is the

perceived performance

intensity

of the work as a whole, conceptualizing the entire work as a single

entity out of time. The work’s form and essence has a dimension in per-

ceived performance intensity. This is the work’s reference dynamic level.

Every work can be conceived as having a single, overall reference dynamic

level (RDL). This is the dynamic level that characterizes a piece of music

when the form of the work is envisioned. The RDL is a single, speciﬁ c

dynamic level that represents the intensity and expression of the piece.

This speciﬁ c dynamic level is an understanding of the intensity level of the

performance of a piece of music, as a whole and as realized in an instant

(its form). It is the inherent spirit of the music/recording as a level of exer-

tion, expression, mood, and sometimes message combined into a single

concept. When some people talk about a song’s “groove,” they may actu-

ally be talking about its RDL.

Performers establish this reference dynamic level in their minds before

beginning a performance of any piece of music. Often this occurs intui-

tively. Composers also retain this level in their thoughts (at least subcon-

sciously) throughout the process of writing a piece of music. Recordists

will go through a similar process in production work. Recordists establish

this level as a reference from which they are able to calculate all other

dynamic levels and relationships. In recordings, this level often needs to

be consistent for hours, days, weeks or longer, as sessions for a piece of

music progress at their own pace.

Performance intensity cues are related to timbral changes of the sound

sources. Sound sources will exhibit different timbral characteristics when

performed at different dynamic levels and with different amounts of physi-

cal exertion. The impressions the listener receives, related to the intensity

level of the performance (of all of the musical parts individually and collec-

tively), will be related to actual dynamic relationships of the musical parts.

The perceived performance intensity in the recording and the perceived

dynamic relationships of the musical parts will directly shape the listener’s

impression of the existing RDL of the recording. Dynamic and performance

intensity cues (including expressive qualities of the performance) play

signiﬁ cant roles in determining RDL, as does tempo. The sound sources

that present the primary musical materials (or that are at the center of the

Evaluating Loudness in Audio and Music Recordings

141

listener’s focus) will often have proportionally more inﬂ uence than sources

presenting less signiﬁ cant material.

Through the perception of these cues and the inﬂ uence of tempo, a single,

conceptual dynamic level will be determined. This is the RDL of the per-

formance (recording/piece of music)—the level at which it is envisioned

as existing. This is the reference level that will be used to calculate the

dynamic levels of the individual musical parts in relation to the whole, as

well as the dynamic contour of the overall program.

Every work will have a speciﬁ c RDL. When a work is divided into separate

major sections, even separate movements (such as a symphony), the work

will have an RDL that allows all sections to be related to the overall con-

cept. Even a 90-minute symphony will have only a single RDL. The RDL

becomes one of the factors that allow the listener to perceive the work as a

single entity, composed of many related parts.

The reference dynamic level can be perceived as existing anywhere from

very loud (fff) to very soft (ppp). The RDL will be established as a precisely

deﬁ ned dynamic level that will serve as a reference level throughout the

work. This will be discussed further.

The RDL will be used for evaluating/deﬁ ning:

1. Dynamic relationships of the overall dynamic contour of the program

(piece of music),

2. Dynamic levels of the musical ideas (sound sources) of the work, and

3. Dynamic relationships of the individual dynamic contours of the musi-

cal balance of the work.

Performance Intensity and Dynamic Markings

Timbre changes of performance intensity are important cues in our percep-

tion of dynamic levels of acoustic performances. We apply these same cues

to recorded sounds to imagine a live performance, despite the medium.

In recordings we gauge performance intensity solely by sound quality, as

the visual cues of a live performance are not present—though they are still

imagined. Our reference for performance intensity is our knowledge of the

instrument’s timbre, as it is played at various levels of physical exertion, with

different types of expression, and with various performance techniques.

The listener recognizes the amount of physical exertion required to produce

a certain sound quality on an instrument. This understanding becomes the

perceived performance intensity. Performed sounds that require expend-

ing energy are perceived as moderately loud (mezzo forte, mf), or above.

Performed sounds that appear to be withholding energy are perceived as

moderately soft (mezzo piano, mp), or below. When the listener imagines

a considerable amount of energy (or perhaps an excessive amount) was

Chapter 7

142

required to produce a perceived sound quality, the performance intensity

will be forte (f), or perhaps more. This becomes simpler when remember-

ing to relate dynamic markings and performance intensity cues to energy

expended by the performer.

The threshold between mezzo piano (mp) and mezzo forte (mf) is critical to

this understanding. This is the energy level the performer can theoretically

sustain indeﬁ nitely. Conceptually, at this level the performer is neither put-

ting forth energy, nor holding back—no energy is being exerted. Above this

threshold, energy is being consumed by pushing forward, becoming more

assertive—even if only a very small amount. Below the threshold, energy

is being held back, or being withdrawn, if only in a small amount. Moving

further above or below the threshold, the perception becomes a matter of

degree, or magnitude, of how much energy is being expended or withheld.

The difference then between ff and fff is the level of intensity and the expec-

tation of the length of time that level of energy can be sustained. Likewise,

the level of restraint and the likelihood of the length of time that restraint

might be sustained distinguish

pp and ppp.

The traditional terms for dynamic levels can continue to be of use with

a well-deﬁ ned RDL based on performance-intensity information. With a

deﬁ ned RDL, the comparative terms can have more signiﬁ cant meaning.

The terms will remain imprecise, but they will be more meaningful. Dynam-

ic levels are more precisely deﬁ ned when sound sources are compared to

one another and placed on the appropriate graph, making the use of the

traditional terms a mere starting point for evaluation of loudness levels.

The terms retain their meanings from musical contexts, whereas the

dynamic terms (such as mezzo forte) describe a quality of performance

and an amount of physical exertion and drama on the part of the perform-

er, as well as being a description of the loudness level. When placed on

a graph (see Figure 7-1) these general terms are transformed into areas

where sounds can be precisely deﬁ ned against the RDL and in relation to

performance intensity.

Evaluating Loudness in Audio and Music Recordings

143

Figure 7-1

Dynamic

ranges and dynamic

contour.

fff

ppp

Time

RDL

voice

piano

bass

flute

guitar

KEY

Dynamic Levels as Ranges

Dynamic levels do not exist as a speciﬁ c level of loudness in musical con-

texts. Dynamics are understood as ranges or areas. Dynamic markings

refer to a range of actual loudness levels.

The dynamic marking “mezzo forte” does not refer to a precise level. It

refers to a range of dynamic levels between “mezzo piano” and “forte.”

Many gradations of “mezzo forte” may exist in a certain piece of music.

Many instruments can be performing at different levels of loudness, yet be

accurately described as being in the “mezzo forte” dynamic range. Entire

musical works or performances MAY take place within the range of a cer-

tain dynamic marking, yet exhibit striking contrasts of loudness levels.

Figure 7-1 presents the vertical axis that will be used for all graphs plotting

dynamics. The dynamic markings are centered within the ranges. A number

of sound sources are plotted on the graph, and the reference dynamic level

is designated on the vertical axis. Each sound source can be compared to

Chapter 7

144

the dynamic levels and contours of the other sources, and to the RDL. The

unique characteristics of each source are readily apparent from the graph.

If limited to describing the sound sources by traditional dynamic-level

designations, some sounds would be a “loud mezzo piano,” some sounds

a “moderate mezzo piano,” and others a “soft mezzo piano.” The graph,

in this instance, circumvents the need for these vague and cumbersome

descriptions.

The most extreme boundaries of dynamic ranges, for nearly all musical

contexts, will extend from “ppp” to “fff” Musical examples that contain

material beyond these boundaries are rare. The individual graph should

incorporate only those ranges that are needed to accurately present the

material, and to leave some vertical area of the graph unused above and

below the plotted sounds, for clarity of presentation.

Determining Reference Dynamic Levels

The perceived performance intensity level that serves as our reference for

evaluating the dynamic relationships of the work is, again, the reference

dynamic level. A single RDL will be used (1) at the highest hierarchical level

to calculate the dynamic contour of the entire program (the complete musi-

cal texture) and (2) at the midlevels of the structural hierarchy to calculate

the dynamic contours of the individual sound sources in musical balance.

At the lower levels of the structural hierarchy, the reference level switches

to the performance intensity level of the individual sound. The intensity

level of a speciﬁ c appearance of the sound source is used as the refer-

ence level to determine the dynamic contours of the individual sound and

its component parts. At these levels of perspective, dynamic contours are

plotted of (1) a typical appearance of the overall sound source (the dynam-

ic envelope) and (2) the individual components of the spectrum (spectral

envelope). This dynamic contour information seeks to deﬁ ne the sound

quality or timbre of the sound source, and will be explored in the next

chapter, in that context.

The RDL of the piece of music is the reference for determining the dynamic

levels of the sound sources and the composite musical texture. In order to

make these evaluations, the RDL must ﬁ rst be deﬁ ned.

The RDL is a precise level that can be clearly deﬁ ned. It is not subjective. All

listeners putting forth the effort to perceive it will arrive at the same level.

The listener will recognize when they have identiﬁ ed the correct level. The

level will cause all other dynamic relationships to be understood, to make

sense. The listener will perceive the piece of music as existing at the pre-

cisely identiﬁ ed dynamic level. The dynamic level is envisioned as a dimen-

sion of the essence of the piece of music.

Evaluating Loudness in Audio and Music Recordings

145

A listener’s ﬁ rst attempts to deﬁ ne RDL are usually difﬁ cult. The concept

itself eludes many people at ﬁ rst. The reader must remain conscious of try-

ing to understand this important concept. It will require many hearings of

the recording/piece of music to learn it well enough to try to deﬁ ne some-

thing requiring this depth of understanding. After achieving this level of

understanding, the listener can become more comfortable with formulat-

ing the impression of a single dynamic level that IS the dynamic/intensity

level of the piece. The listener will recognize the RDL of a piece once it has

been experienced and understood. It is likely they will then not forget it. Lis-

teners often experience the RDL even in passive listening for entertainment

and do not realize it; indeed it is often the song’s overall dynamic/intensity

(energy, intensity, motion, mood, expression—“groove”—combined) that

draws a listener to identify strongly with a song.

It is common for some information to get in the way of formulating this

impression of the RDL. Musical materials, lyrics, tempo, and instrument

timbres all give cues that the listener will be tempted to factor into this

observation. Skilled musicians are even prone to drawing conclusions

based on what they would like to be present in the music, rather than lis-

tening to what is present. Some instruments may well be performing at

intensities that send conﬂ icting cues when considered against the listen-

er’s ideas of the potential RDL; this conﬂ icting information enriches art, but

makes deﬁ ning it more difﬁ cult. A magic formula does not exist for deter-

mining the RDL. This is one of the signiﬁ cant artistic dimensions of a piece

of music that deﬁ es theoretical analysis and instead uses the sensibilities

of the listener. This does not make it subjective, only that it cannot be pre-

dicted by measured calculation, but is determined through the experience

of the music and arrived at through an understanding of the piece. Again,

the RDL will be a precise level that all listeners can agree upon (± 2 percent)

given enough attention to the task.

Figure 7-2 identiﬁ es the RDL of “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.” Two levels

are shown: one for the original version from

Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts

Club Band and the other for the 1999 Yellow Submarine version. The two

versions have slightly different reference dynamic levels. The different lev-

els are caused by the different mixes and presentations of materials, among

other factors such as the sound qualities imparted during mastering. The

essence of the piece has been slightly altered by the slightly different sound

qualities of the sound sources and the recordings. The reference dynamic

levels are perceived as clearly within mezzo forte’s moderate expending of

energy. They are both beyond the level midway between the beginning of

mf and the threshold of f (where exertion moves beyond moderate). In fact

both exceed the three-quarters level of the area that comprises mf. After

much listening and contemplation, the levels can be understood as being

in the upper 15 percent of the mf area, with not more than 10 percent of the

area separating the two levels.

Chapter 7

146

Figure 7-2

Reference

dynamic levels of two

versions of “Lucy in the

Sky with Diamonds;”

* original version from

Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely

Hearts Club Band and

**1999 Yellow Submarine

version.

RDL is calculated after getting to know the composition, recording, and/or

performance well. Two different performances of the same piece by the

same performer may each have a different RDL. Each of two different inter-

pretations will almost certainly have a different RDL, if only slightly.

An exercise in determining the reference dynamic level of a recording/piece

of music appears at the end of this chapter, Exercise 7-1.

Program Dynamic Contour

Changes of dynamic level, over time, comprise dynamic contour. As noted,

the dynamic levels and relationships occur at all hierarchical levels. The

broadest level of perspective will allow the dynamic contour of the overall

program to be perceived and plotted. This is the single dynamic level/con-

tour of the composite sound, the result of combining all sounds. This

pro-

gram dynamic contour

can be envisioned as a monometer, following the

dynamics of the entire program.

Skill in recognizing the dynamic level of the overall program is developed

through plotting program dynamic contour. Recordists use this skill in many

listening evaluations. This high-level graph, or the associated listening skill

alone, will be applied to many analytical and critical listening applications.

RDL**

RDL*

Evaluating Loudness in Audio and Music Recordings

147

Dynamic contour must not be confused with performance intensity, with

distance cues, or with spectral complexity. These aspects of recorded sound

often present cues that contradict actual dynamic (loudness) level or that

alter the perception of the actual dynamic level.

Program dynamic contour information is plotted on a program dynamic

contour graph. The graph incorporates:

1. Dynamic area designations for the

Y-axis, distributed to complement

the characteristics of the musical example;

2. The reference dynamic level designated as a precise level on the

Y-axis;

X-axis of the graph dedicated to a time line, divided into appropriate

increments of the metric grid or of real time (depending on the material

and context); and

4. A single line plotted against the two axes (the dynamic contour of the

composite program is the shape of this line).

The program dynamic contour of The Beatles’ “Here Comes the Sun”

is plotted in Figure 7-3. The program dynamic contour graph shows the

changes in overall dynamic level throughout the work. In listening to the

work, the striking changes in the overall dynamic level will be evident. The

wide dynamic range goes through many large and many subtle changes of

loudness level. Pertinent to reference dynamic level, a sense of arrival hap-

pens at the end of the piece. This occurs when the song settles at the RDL

for a moment and then the song is over.

It is common for a piece of music to arrive at its RDL as an important occur-

rence of the work. It might appear in the introduction, the dramatic climax,

the ﬁ nal chorus or the ﬁ nal verse. These are all common places an RDL

might be reached, but any location is possible. It is also possible that the

song’s RDL is never sounded—purposefully leaving the listener unfulﬁ lled

in this regard. It is possible the song’s RDL will be prevalent in a piece

or heard only once as in “Here Comes the Sun.” Many possibilities exist,

including silence, as some songs only fully make sense when the silence at

the end arrives and brings introspection.

Listening to the loudness contour and levels of program dynamic contour

is an important skill for the recordist. It is used extensively for live sound,

ﬁ lm sound, mastering and broadcast at times, when one is concerned

about the level of the overall program and how it changes over time. Dur-

ing mixdown and tracking, it is also necessary to be aware of the overall

program level and dynamic contour in order to control the quality and level

of the recording.

Chapter 7

148

Figure 7-3

Program dynamic contour—The Beatles’ “Here Comes the Sun.”

Intro

1 3 5 7 9 111315 171921 2325 272931 333537 39

Chorus Verse 1 Chorus

Extension

Verse 2

41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79

Chorus

Extension

81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 101103 105 107109 111113 115

Verse 3 Chorus

Chorus Inc. Chorus

Middle Section

CODA

Evaluating Loudness in Audio and Music Recordings

149

Musical Balance

The plotting of all the individual sound sources in a musical texture by

their dynamic contours provides the musical balance graph. The graph will

show the actual dynamic level of the sound sources, in relation to the RDL,

as established above. Each sound source will have a separate line on the

graph that will allow the dynamic contours of the sources to be mapped

against a common time line. This graph will clearly show the loudness lev-

els of all sounds and will represent the mix of the work.

The musical balance graph will not include information on performance

intensity, sound quality, or distance. These cues are often confused with

perceived dynamic level, and are purposefully avoided here. This graph

is solely dedicated to evaluating and understanding the dynamic levels,

contours, and relationships of the sound sources. This should be the focus

of the listener here.

The musical balance graph incorporates:

1. Dynamic area designations for the

Y-axis, distributed to complement

the characteristics of the musical example;

2. Reference dynamic level designated as a precise level on the

Y-axis;

3. X-axis of the graph dedicated to a time line, divided into appropriate

increments of the metric grid;

4. A single line plotted against the two axes for each sound source; and

5. A key relating the names of all sound sources to a unique number,

color, or line composition to identify all source lines on the graph.

Figure 7-4 presents a musical balance graph of some of the sound sources

in The Beatles’ “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds”

Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts

Club Band version. These are the actual loudness levels of the instruments.

The listener will notice that the loudest instrument/voice is not always the

most prominent.

Exercise 7-3 at the end of the chapter will lead the listener through the

process of creating a musical balance graph. It is suggested the reader

become well acquainted with this exercise, as it is one of the most impor-

tant production and basic listening skills required of the recordist.

It is necessary to clearly envision the correct perspective to accurately

hear musical balance relationships. To compare the levels of two or more

instruments (or sound sources), one must focus on the perspective one

level higher than that of the individual instruments; at that level the sound

sources can be perceived as being equal, and compared without bias.

When listening at the level of the individual sound source, a single instru-

ment will become the center of one’s attention and it will be emphasized in

one’s mind, thereby causing loudness judgment to be skewed. One does,

however, listen at this perspective of the individual sound source to iden-

tify the level of a sound source in relation to the work’s RDL.

Chapter 7

150

Figure 7-4

Musical balance graph—The Beatles, “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.”

1 3 5 7 9 111315171921232527293133353739 414345

1 Lowrey Organ

2 John 1

3 John 2

4 John 3

5 Paul 1

6Tom

7 Bass

8 Tamboura

9 Gong

10 Guitar Acoustic

11 Guitar Melody

12 Guitar Bassline Chorus

13 Open Hi Hat

14 Hi Hat Closed

15 Kick

16 Ride w/Rivet

17 Snare

KEY

measures:

Intro

Bridge

Chorus

Verse 1

Evaluating Loudness in Audio and Music Recordings

151

Performance Intensity versus Musical Balance

Performance intensity is the dynamic level at which the sound source was

performing when it was recorded. In many music productions, this dynam-

ic level will be altered in the mixing process of the recording. The perfor-

mance intensity of the sound source and the actual dynamic level of the

sound source in the recording will most often not be identical and will send

conﬂ icting information to the listener.

The dynamic levels of the various sound sources of a recording will often

be at relationships that contradict reality. Sounds of low performance

intensity often appear at higher dynamic levels in recordings than sounds

that were originally recorded at high performance-intensity levels. This is

especially found in vocal lines. This conﬂ icting information may or may not

be desirable, and the recordist should be aware of these relationships.

Important information can be determined by plotting per-

formance intensity against musical balance for some or

all of the sound sources of a recording. This will often pro-

vide signiﬁ cant information on the relationships of sound

sources and the overall dynamic and intensity levels of the

work, as well as the mixing techniques of the recording.

Performance intensity is plotted as the dynamic levels of

the original performance. The listener will judge the inten-

sity of the original performance through timbre cues. The

listener will make judgments based on their knowledge of

the sound qualities of instruments and voices when per-

formed at various dynamic levels.

The reference for performance intensity is the listener’s

knowledge of the particular instrument’s timbre, as that instrument is

played at various levels of physical exertion and with various performance

techniques. A reference dynamic level is not applicable to this element.

Musical balance is plotted as the dynamic levels of the sound sources, as

the listener perceives their actual loudness levels in the recording itself, as

discussed immediately above.

The

performance intensity/musical balance graph incorporates:

1. Dynamic area designations in two tiers for the

Y-axis, distributed to

complement the characteristics of the musical example (one tier is

dedicated to musical balance, and one tier is dedicated to performance

intensity);

2. Reference dynamic level on the musical balance tier, designated as a

precise level on the

Y-axis (an RDL is not relevant to the performance

intensity tier);

X-axis of the graph dedicated to a time line, divided into appropriate

increments of the metric grid;

Listen . . .

to tracks 37 and 38

for one mix that closely aligns

performance intensity and musical

balance and a different mix of the

same performance that radically

alters the musical balance of the

original performance.

Chapter 7

152

Figure 7-5

Performance intensity versus musical balance—The Beatles’ “Strawberry Fields Forever.”

Introduction

1 2 3 45 6 7 8 910 111213141516171819202122

voice

electric guitar

maracas

snare

mellotron

KEY

measures:

Performance IntensityMusical Balance

Chorus

Verse 1

Evaluating Loudness in Audio and Music Recordings

153

4. A single line plotted against the two axes for each sound source, on

each tier of the graph (each sound source will appear on both tiers; the

same number, composition, or color line is used for the source on each

tier of the graph); and

5. A key used to clearly relate the sound sources to their respective source

line (the same key applies to both tiers of the graph).

Figure 7-5 will allow the listener to observe some of the differences

between the recording’s actual loudness levels and the performance inten-

sities (loudness levels) of the sound sources when they were recorded. A

few key sound sources are graphed from The Beatles’ “Strawberry Fields

Forever.” Some sound sources are at very different levels in each tier, and

others show no signiﬁ cant change. Some sources contain subtle changes

of dynamic levels and/or many nuances of performance intensity informa-

tion, and the Mellotron exhibits few gradations of dynamics and intensity.

An exercise to develop skills in recognizing and evaluating performance

intensity versus musical balance information appears as Exercise 7-4 at the

end of the chapter. As an additional exercise, the reader might determine

the musical balance and performance intensities of the other sound sourc-

es in “Strawberry Fields Forever” during the measures of Figure 7-5.

The musical balance and the performance intensity graphs will function

at the same level of perspective as the pitch density graph (in Chapter 10).

When evaluated jointly, these three artistic elements will allow the listener

to extract much pertinent information about the mixing and recording pro-

cesses, and the creative concepts of the music.

Exercises

The following exercises should be performed with care. You should work me-

thodically to become comfortable with the material covered.

When performing loudness/dynamic evaluations, and evaluations of many

of the other elements that follow, work to identify clearly what you know for

certain. Ask yourself if the sound is at extremes of the dynamic range, and

work toward focusing in on the correct level. Continue to feel comfortable

that you have knowledge of what the sound level is not, and work at ﬁ nding

what the level is.

Exercise 7-1

Reference Dynamic Level Exercise

Select a recording you know well for initial attempts at determining the refer-

ence dynamic level of a piece of music. It would be best for the work to be less

than four minutes duration.

Chapter 7

154

1. Before listening to the piece, spend some time thinking about the overall

character of the piece; consider the overall energy level, performance in-

tensity, concept or message, and other important aspects of the song.

2. Listen to the song several times to conﬁ rm that the observations in your

memory are reﬂ ected in the actual music and recording.

3. Reconsider your observations with each new hearing of the recording.

4. Attempt to determine a precise dynamic level for the RDL. Begin this pro-

cess by working from the extreme levels—ppp and fff—asking if the level

exists in those areas.

5. Once the dynamic area has been determined, work to deﬁ ne a precise

level by asking if the RDL is below 50 percent in the level, or above. Con-

tinue to work toward a speciﬁ c level by narrowing the area further.

6. Leave the example and your answer for a period of time (several hours

or several days). Listen to the song again. Reconsider the RDL previously

deﬁ ned.

If you do not know a piece of music, many hearings will be required before

initial observations can be made.

Exercise 7-2

Program Dynamic Contour Exercise

Select a short song for initial attempts at creating a program dynamic con-

tour graph. The entire song should be graphed for overall dynamic contour.

The dynamic level of the entire recording (the composite dynamic level of

all sounds) will be the focus of this exercise. Initial attempts at this exercise

should use a song with large, sudden changes of dynamic level. Repeat the

exercise using a song with changes that are smaller. Calculate a general shape

of the dynamic contour before attempting to grasp all of the subtle details.

1. During the ﬁ rst hearing(s), listen to the example to establish the length of

the time line. At the same time, become acquainted with the character of

the song to begin formulating an idea of its RDL.

2. Check the time line for accuracy and make any alterations. Establish the

RDL of the work by working through the previous exercise.

3. Notice the activity of the program dynamic contour for boundaries of lev-

els of activity and speed of activity. The boundary of speed will establish

the smallest time unit required to accurately plot the smallest signiﬁ cant

change of the element. The boundary of levels of activity will establish the

smallest increment of the Y-axis required to plot the smallest change of

the dynamic contour.

4. Begin plotting the dynamic contour on the graph, continually relating

the perceived dynamic level to the RDL. First, establish prominent points

within the contour. These reference points will be the highest or lowest

levels, the beginning and ending levels, points immediately after silences,

Evaluating Loudness in Audio and Music Recordings

155

and other points that stand out from the remainder of the activity. Use

the points of reference to judge the activity of the preceding and following

material. Focus on the contour, speed, and amounts of level changes to

complete the plotting of the contour.

5. The evaluation is complete when the smallest signiﬁ cant detail has been

perceived, understood, and added to the graph.

Exercise 7-3

Musical Balance Exercise

Select a popular song with at least three instruments and voice. Evaluate the

ﬁ rst 32 bars for musical balance. This exercise will graph the dynamic con-

tours—actual loudness levels—of all sound sources against the song’s RDL.

Musical balance is the relationships of sound sources to one another. Initial

attempts should use pieces of music with only a few sound sources.

The exercise will follow the sequence:

1. During the ﬁ rst hearing(s), establish the length and structural divisions

of the time line. At the same time, notice prominent instrumentation and

activity of their general dynamic levels against the time line.

2. Check the time line for accuracy and make any alterations. Establish a

complete list of sound sources (instruments and voices), and sketch the

presence of the sound sources against the completed time line. A key

should be created, assigning each sound source with its own number,

color, or line format.

3. Determine the reference dynamic level of the sound using the process

previously presented.

4. Notice the activity of the dynamic levels of the sound sources (instru-

ments and voices) for boundaries of levels of activity and speed of activ-

ity. The boundary of speed will establish the smallest time unit required

to accurately plot the smallest signiﬁ cant change of dynamic level. The

boundary of levels of activity will establish the smallest increment of the

Y-axis required to plot the smallest change of dynamics.

5. Begin plotting the dynamic contours of each instrument or voice on the

graph. Keeping the RDL clearly in mind, establish the beginning dynamic

levels of each sound source. Next, determine other prominent points of

reference. Use the points of reference to judge the activity of the preced-

ing and following material. Focus on the contour, speed, and amounts of

level changes to complete the plotting of the dynamic contours.

6. You should periodically shift your focus to compare the dynamic levels of

the sound sources to one another. This will aid in developing the dynamic

contours and will keep you focused on the relationships of dynamic levels

of the various sources. The evaluation is complete when the smallest sig-

niﬁ cant detail has been incorporated into the graph.

Chapter 7

156

It is important to remain focused on the actual loudness of instruments, mak-

ing certain your attention is not drawn to other aspects of sound.

As you gain experience and conﬁ dence in making these evaluations, songs

with more instruments should be examined and longer sections of the works

should be evaluated.

Exercise 7-4

Performance Intensity versus Musical Balance Exercise

Select a multitrack recording of a popular song with at least ﬁ ve sound sourc-

es. Evaluate the ﬁ rst 16 bars for performance intensity and musical balance.

Select ﬁ ve sound sources to graph for this exercise. The graph will have two

tiers: one will graph musical balance (the actual loudness levels in the record-

ing), the other performance intensity (the loudness levels of the instruments

when they were recorded).

1. The musical balance exercise should ﬁ rst be completed as in the previous

section. This will generate the graph’s time line as well.

2. Performance intensity will now be determined for each sound source, for

the performance intensity tier. Sound sources will have the same number,

color, or line format as on the musical balance tier.

3. Begin plotting the performance intensity of each sound source on the

graph. Start by establishing the beginning performance intensity levels

of each sound source. Next, determine other prominent points of ref-

erence. Use the points of reference to judge the activity of the preced-

ing and following material. Focus on the contour, speed, and amounts

of level changes to complete the plotting of these performance intensity

contours. The evaluation is complete when the smallest signiﬁ cant detail

has been incorporated into the graph.

You can now compare the two tiers, and learn signiﬁ cant information on how

the voices and instruments were tracked, and how the recording and mixing

processes altered the sound sources. These provide insights into the musical

and production decisions that went into “crafting the mix” of that recording.

As you gain experience in making these evaluations, all of the sound sources

of songs with many instruments should be examined for longer sections of

songs that have signiﬁ cant changes in the mix.

157

8 Evaluating Sound Quality

This chapter will present a process that can be used to evaluate sound

quality and timbre. This process can bring anyone in the audio industry to

communicate meaningful information about sound.

By directly describing the physical dimensions of sound, the process can be

easily adapted to evaluate any sound. The reader will learn to describe sound

quality (accounting for the various contexts within which sounds exist), and

to evaluate timbre (sound out of context as an abstract sound object).

The critical listening process and the technical areas of the audio industry

are often juxtaposed with creative applications and analytical listening pro-

cesses. These differences are most apparent in examining the characteris-

tics of sound quality and timbre, and will be articulated here. In addition, the

perception of sound quality at various hierarchical levels will be explored.

Sound quality as an overall shape or character exists at a number of levels

in perspective and types of listening. These concepts are central to the eval-

uation process, as they allow us to understand sound as an object (avail-

able for evaluation out of time) at all levels of perspective.

Communicating information about sound quality is important to all facets

of music production. Nearly all positions in the entire audio industry need

to communicate about the content or quality of sound. Yet a vocabulary for

describing sound quality and a process for objectively evaluating the com-

ponents of sound quality do not exist. Meaningful communication about

sound quality can be accomplished through describing the physical com-

ponents of timbre and sound quality. Sounds will be described by the char-

acteristics that make them unique. These characteristics are the activities

and states that occur in the component parts of the sound source’s timbre.

The component parts have been reduced to the deﬁ nition of fundamental

frequency, dynamic envelope, spectrum (spectral content), and spectral

envelope. Meaningful information about sound quality can be communi-

cated through describing these characteristics. This can be done in great

detail or in a general way. Information can be gathered and communicated

Chapter 8

158

in a more detailed and precise manner through graphing sound quality.

The following sections will lead the reader to develop skill and language to

objectively describe sound.

Sound Quality in Critical Listening Contexts

Describing sound quality in and out of musical contexts are skills that are

important for recordists. In both contexts, sound quality evaluations occur

at all levels of our perceptual hierarchies—at all perspectives.

Outside musical contexts, we are concerned with understanding the char-

acteristics of sound quality for its own sake and as the integrity of the audio

signal. These are perhaps the most prominent approaches to sound quality

for the recordist.

This ﬁ rst approach to examining sound quality looks at the unique char-

acter of a particular sound. This character of the sound may be what sep-

arates one microphone’s imprint from another, one person’s snare drum

sound from another’s, or even one monitor speaker from others. Through

critical listening skills, sound quality of a particular sound is evaluated for

its unique qualities. The evaluation examines the activities of the compo-

nents of timbre that occur within that sound only. This type of sound quality

evaluation seeks to deﬁ ne the individual sound so it can be understood.

This information can then be put to use in various ways. One might evalu-

ate a sound to examine how a microphone is altering the characteristics of

an instrument to determine if the microphone produces the desired sound.

Perhaps two or more sounds are evaluated and compared—the crash cym-

bal sounds from Chapter 6 are an example of this type of comparison.

Critical listening evaluation is also often concerned with the technical qual-

ity, or integrity, of the recording. The technical quality or the integrity of the

signal are of paramount importance, and are out of musical contexts. It is

usually the goal of recordings to be of the highest technical quality, and

to be void of all degradations of signal quality/integrity and all unwanted

sound (although Internet compression seems to be modifying this goal by

accepting degradations of signal in exchange for speed of transmission).

The technical quality of recordings is degraded by unwanted sounds and

can also be impacted by the numerous ways the dimensions of frequency/

pitch, amplitude/loudness, and time/phase are undesirably altered by the

recording and reproduction equipment and processes (often malfunctions,

mismatches or mis-calibrations). These must all be heard and understood by

the recordist, and are only perceived through sound quality evaluations.

The focus of the listener may need to be at any level of perspective, with

the listener needing to quickly and accurately shift perspectives. The listener

may be evaluating the technical quality of the sound for information related

to frequency response (or spectral content, or spectral envelope), or the

Evaluating Sound Quality

159

listener may be listening for transient response (or dynamic envelope, or

dynamic contour of a speciﬁ c frequency area). As examples of extremes of

perspective, the listener may focus on the sound quality of the overall pro-

gram or may be listening at the close perspective of focusing on the sound

quality of a particular characteristic of a single, isolated sound source.

Critical listening involves the evaluation of sound quality to deﬁ ne what

is physically present, to identify the characteristic qualities of the sound

being evaluated, or to identify any undesirable sounds or characteristics

that inﬂ uence the integrity of the audio signal. This process and conceptu-

alization is performed without consideration of the function and/or mean-

ing of the sound and without taking into account the context of the sound.

Sound Quality in Analytical Listening Contexts

Analytical listening involves the evaluation of sound quality to identify its

characteristic qualities in relation to the context of the sound. Analytical

listening will seek to deﬁ ne the sound quality in terms of what is physi-

cally present, but will then relate that information to the musical context in

which the sound material is presented and perceived. It involves deﬁ ning

sounds and then comparing the sound to others.

Pitch density is an evaluation of pitch-related characteristics of sound qual-

ity, at the perspective of the individual sound source. This evaluation will

use sound-quality information and relate it to a musical context. Pitch area

analysis (such as the ones performed on percussion sounds in Chapter 6) is

another evaluation of pitch-related characteristics of sound quality, only at

a lower perspective within the characteristics of the individual sound. This

may not necessarily take place within the musical context, and if so it is a

critical-listening process. When the information is used to compare how

a pitch area compares to other sounds in comprising the overall texture

(timbral balance) of the recording, this is in musical context and is analyti-

cal listening.

The pitch density and timbral balance evaluations in Chapter 10 are in musi-

cal contexts. The pitch area analyses of the percussion sounds in Chapter 6

are out of musical context.

Both of these studies are simple (or more general) approaches to timbre

and sound quality evaluation. They both deﬁ ne the pitch-component infor-

mation that leads to deﬁ ning timbre, or evaluating sound quality. This pro-

cess is related to evaluating the spectral content of a sound. In the same

way, dynamic contour analyses are related to sound quality analysis, at

various structural levels.

The sound quality of the entire program, or of any individual sound source,

may be supplying the most signiﬁ cant musical information in certain pieces

of music. This concept of music composition (that can be explained through

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160

equivalence) is quite prominent in many very different styles of music.

Throughout the twentieth century, a type of writing, sound mass composi-

tion

, evolved through the work of composers Edgar Varèse, George Antheil,

Krzysztof Penderecki, Karlheinz Stockhausen (whose photo appears on the

album cover of

Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band), and Luciano Berio

(to name only a few). Their music of this type places an emphasis on the

dimensions of the overall musical texture (or sound mass) and/or on the

sound quality relationships within the overall musical texture.

The concept of giving musical signiﬁ cance to the sound quality of the

entire program, the relationships of sound qualities, and to pitch density

can be found in a wide variety of popular works from the 1960s on. Many

examples of these ideas exist, although this concept is used in isolated

areas in most works.

The Beatles’ “A Day in the Life” is one such work. The concept of sound

quality and pitch density is what shapes the music and the dramatic motion

of the song’s transition section and its conclusion. The sound mass con-

cept of pitch density is the primary musical element, causing timbre/sound

quality to be the dominant artistic element during those sections.

Sound Quality and Perspective

We will remember that sound quality is our recognition of a sound as a

single, unique entity. The listener conceives sound in this way by its over-

all character that is composed of the component parts: dynamic envelope,

spectrum and spectral envelope. Further, we recognize sound quality in

this way at any number of levels of perspective (perceived detail).

We are able to recognize sound quality most often at the following perspec-

tives for analytical listening:

1. as timbral balance of the overall program (the entire musical texture),

2. as groupings of similar or similarly acting sounds within the overall

program (such as a brass or a string section within an orchestra, or the

rhythm section of a jazz ensemble),

3. as the interrelationships of the pitch densities of individual instruments;

4. as the characteristic overall impression of an individual sound source

(instrument, voice, synthesizer patch, special effect),

5. as speciﬁ c sounds generated by individual sound sources (individual

expressive vocal sounds, a speciﬁ ed voicing of a guitar chord, a single

sound’s timbre characteristics), or

6. as environmental characteristics—the sound quality of an environment

(explored in the next chapter).

Critical listening also engages all levels of perspective in a similar manner.

The recordist is concerned about the integrity of the signal at the overall

texture, the individual sound source, any groupings of sound sources (such

Evaluating Sound Quality

161

as a drum mix), an isolated sound, the subtle qualities of spectrum or spec-

tral envelope within a sound, and more.

At these very different levels of perspective, we recognize sound quality

as the concept that makes a sound a single, unique entity composed of

recognizable characteristics. This global quality is evaluated to determine

speciﬁ c information, to identify the aspects that make each sound unique.

Evaluating the Characteristics of

Sound Quality and Timbre

Sound quality evaluations will examine spectral content, spectral enve-

lope, and dynamic contour, in both musical contexts and in critical listening

evaluations. Sound quality evaluation will be approached in this way at all

levels of perspective.

In analytical listening at the highest levels, the individual sound sources

that make up the overall texture can be conceived as individual spectral

components. At the lowest level, individual spectral components are evalu-

ated, and individual evaluations may be performed for each occurrence of

a sound source. Individual sound sources may be analyzed for their con-

tributions to the sound quality of the overall program. In musical contexts,

this evaluation will compare the sound sources to the overall sound quality

through their individual dynamic contours (creating musical balance), their

pitch area (creating pitch density evaluations), and their spatial character-

istics (Chapter 9).

In critical listening, the contributions of the individual sounds to the overall

program can be approached in relation to the same dimensions, but with-

out relation to musical time or context.

Often, the audio professional is concerned with evaluating the individu-

al sound source. Individual sound sources are evaluated for their unique

sound quality as sound objects. The sounds are evaluated to deﬁ ne their

unique characteristics, through an evaluation of the states and activities of

their component parts, out of the musical context.

This is the most widely applied use of the evaluation of sound quality. It

is used for many activities from setting signal processors to evaluating

the performance of audio devices, and from deﬁ ning the general charac-

teristics of a sound source (such as the sound quality of a guitar part in a

recording) to a detailed evaluation of a particular guitar sound. Many other

similar examples can readily be found.

Often, a sound quality evaluation is performed on a single, isolated presen-

tation of the sound source. An isolated presentation will have its unique

pitch level, performed dynamic level, method and intensity of articulation,

etc. Among many uses, examining a particular isolated presentation of a

Chapter 8

162

sound source allows for meaningful comparison between different perfor-

mances of the same source, or of a different sound source performing simi-

lar material. In practice, several or even many isolated sounds are often

compared to determine the most desirable sound or to try to identify the

source of a distortion or noise.

Evaluations of sound quality will seek to deﬁ ne and describe the states and

activities of the sound source’s (1) dynamic envelope, (2) spectral content,

and (3) spectral envelope. It will also make use of the listener’s carefully

evaluated perception of (4) pitch deﬁ nition.

We will focus our study on timbre or sound quality evaluations of single

sounds. This will allow us to explore the most common application of

sound-quality evaluation in perhaps the most straightforward manner.

Deﬁ ning a Time Line

Most often sound quality and timbre evaluation will take place out of musi-

cal contexts. In these critical listening applications, clock time is used to

evaluate the characteristic changes that occur over time. While we need to

conceive sound quality as the shape of the sound in an instant, or out of

time, sound only exists in time. Sound can only be accurately evaluated as

changes in states or values of the component parts, which occur over time.

Sound quality in critical listening applications approaches the sound as an

isolated, abstract object. The sound is understood as an object that has a

characteristic shape that unfolded over time.

The evaluation may also take place within musical contexts. In these

instances, the time of the metric grid will be used, when it is present. Evalu-

ation of sound quality will be focused on the musical relationships of the

material, and usually takes place at a higher perspective than critical listen-

ing’s timbre evaluations.

Sound quality evaluations of single sounds will nearly always use clock

time in tenths or perhaps hundredths of seconds in the time line. The time

line of the sound is determined ﬁ rst in any sound quality evaluation. A clock,

counter, or stopwatch might be used as a reference. Next,

increments within the time line and suitable reference

points within the time line will be identiﬁ ed. Skill needs to

be acquired in performing these tasks. The time exercises

of Chapter 5 will greatly assist this development, and the

reader is encouraged to revisit them. While determining a

time line will require a number of hearings, this number

will be reduced with experience and increased ability.

Listen . . .

to tracks 26-33 again

for the exercise in learning the

sound quality of small time units.

This will assist you in deﬁ ning time

lines for timbre and sound quality

evaluations—and much more.

Evaluating Sound Quality

163

Deﬁ ning the Four Components of Sound Quality Evaluations

The physical dimensions of the sound source (dynamic envelope, spectral

content, and spectral envelope), in their unique states and levels, are used

to deﬁ ne sound quality. The deﬁ nition of fundamental frequency (pitch

deﬁ nition) aids in deﬁ ning information of those values, especially the loud-

ness level of the fundamental frequency in relation to the remainder of

the sound’s spectrum and the dominance of harmonic partials. These four

components of sound quality evaluations are examined throughout the

duration of the sound material and are plotted against a single time line. It

is important to note that pitch deﬁ nition and dynamic envelope exist at the

perspective of the overall sound, and that spectrum and spectral envelope

are internal components of the sound and are recognized only at a lower

level of perspective.

Pitch Deﬁ nition

Pitch deﬁ nition will become the focus immediately after the time line has

been drafted. This deﬁ nition of the fundamental frequency is useful in mak-

ing preliminary and general observations of a sound. Deﬁ nition of funda-

mental frequency is often somewhat stable during the sustain portion of a

given sound. Changes in pitch quality are most commonly found between

the onset and the body of the sound. Pitch quality is placed on a continuum

between the two boundaries of well-deﬁ ned in pitch or as precisely pitched

(as a sine wave) through completely void of pitch or nonpitched (as white

noise). A dominance of harmonics will bring the sound to have a more

deﬁ ned pitch quality. With increased presence of overtones (in either num-

ber or loudness level) comes a more nonpitched character to the sound.

Often the deﬁ nition of fundamental frequency is verbally described as hav-

ing a certain pitch quality for a certain portion of its duration, then another

certain quality for the remainder of its duration. In effect, a contour of pitch

deﬁ nition is present. The pitch deﬁ nition tier of the sound quality charac-

teristics graph is not always required, but this aspect of the sound should

always be addressed, if only during the early stages of the evaluation.

Examining pitch deﬁ nition supplies many clues of the content of the spec-

trum and the spectral envelope. The less pitched the sound, the more prom-

inent the overtone content; the recordist can then be drawn to determining

what overtones are present and when they occur. With focus, one can trace

how pitch deﬁ nition changes over the sound’s duration; then one can seek

information on spectral content and spectral envelope using this informa-

tion as a point of departure. Pitch deﬁ nition and dynamic envelope are also

often linked during the onset of a sound or when the spectrum becomes

active or dense.

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164

Dynamic Contour

The dynamic contour of the sound, or the sound’s overall dynamic level as

it changes throughout its duration, is reasonably apparent at ﬁ rst hearings.

Difﬁ culties may arise with confusing loudness changes and spectral com-

plexity changes. The listener must remain focused on actual loudness and

not be pulled to other perceived parameters of sound.

A reference dynamic level (RDL) will be required for mapping the dynamic

contour. The RDL will be determined by the intensity level at which the

source was performed. The intensity level itself is the RDL; it will be trans-

ferred to a precise dynamic level (a speciﬁ c point in a dynamic area such as

“mezzo piano” or “forte”). The same reference dynamic level will be used

in the spectral envelope tier, explained below. In this way, the same refer-

ence level functions on two levels of perspective, just as one reference

dynamic level functions for both program dynamic contour and for musical

balance (in Chapter 7).

The dynamic contour is readily described. This is accomplished by discuss-

ing the shape and speed of the dynamic envelope, and its dynamic levels at

deﬁ ned points in time. By discussing how loudness changes and by deﬁ n-

ing the levels and speed of those changes, the listener is describing this

physical element as others are experiencing it. This is an important compo-

nent of the unique objective character of the sound.

Spectral Content

Readers may hear few or no spectral components at the beginning of their

studies. Harmonics and overtones fuse to the fundamental frequency, and

we have been conditioned to perceive all of this information as part of a

whole (the global sound quality). To a great extent, to evaluate sound qual-

ity we must work against many learned listening techniques and our pre-

vious listening experiences. Much patience and focused attention will be

required. Practice and repetitive listening must be undertaken to acquire the

skills of accurately recognizing spectral components and of accurately track-

ing dynamic contours of the components that make up spectral content.

The harmonic series can be an important tool to assist in identifying spec-

tral components. The listener can learn to envision the harmonic series as a

chord above the fundamental frequency. Once the listener has learned the

sound of this chord, it will be possible to focus attention on the individual

pitches of the harmonic series while listening to a sound. The listener will

then be in a better position to identify any pitches/frequencies of the har-

monic series that might be present. Frequencies/pitches other than har-

monics will also be noticed; the listener will ultimately be able to quickly

calculate where the overtones fall in relation to the envisioned harmonic

series. Frequencies/pitches that lie between harmonics will be able to be

Evaluating Sound Quality

165

identiﬁ ed as being “between the fourth and ﬁ fth harmonic,” for example,

and a bit more attention will bring the listener to recognize the partial’s

frequency/pitch more precisely. In this way, the harmonic series is used

as a template, to which the frequencies/pitches present can be compared

and identiﬁ ed. The harmonic series can be a point of reference that makes

evaluating spectral content much more approachable.

The reader is encouraged to return to the discussion of the harmonic series

in Chapter 1 to study its content and to spend time learning the sound of

the series. The reader is also encouraged to review the conversion of pitch

levels into frequency levels and the reverse.

The reader should feel free to use whatever devices are

available to assist in identifying partials. This will especial-

ly prove helpful in initial studies. A tone generator or key-

board may be used to assist in identifying frequency levels

or pitch levels of prominent harmonics and overtones. A

ﬁ lter can be used to eliminate all but the fundamental fre-

quency, and partials can be added one at a time; it can also

be used to eliminate the fundamental frequency so the

harmonics and overtones can be heard more directly. An

equalizer can emphasize certain frequency bands to assist

the reader in determining where the spectral components

exist. It is important to remember to perform activities that

engage the mind and the ear in searching for the informa-

tion, learning to listen at the perspective of the individual

partials, learning the sound of the spectrum, using one’s

knowledge of the content and sound quality of the harmonic series. Spec-

tral-analysis software can sometimes assist one in evaluating sounds; this

could be helpful in helping one gain this listening skill, but one must be

wary of not letting the software replace this skill. It is important for the

reader to be actively seeking the information in a thoughtful and methodi-

cal manner, and to engage the ears and mind in the process.

The reader will be able to describe much about a sound by addressing the

spectrum. Deﬁ ning which harmonics are present and those that are promi-

nent, as well as indicating overtone content, provides a signiﬁ cant amount

of objective information about a sound.

Spectral Envelope

Describing the entrances and exits of the partials (harmonics and over-

tones) as well as the individual dynamic contours of these partials (the

spectral envelope) will provide additional important information on sound

quality. The spectral envelope will be calculated against the reference

dynamic level that was identiﬁ ed for the overall dynamic contour and

against a common time line. All of the spectral components identiﬁ ed, as

Listen . . .

to tracks 1 and 2

for harmonic series played in indi-

vidual frequencies and pitches, and

as a chord. Work to recognize this

pattern and spacing of intervals,

and learn the “sound quality” of

the chord that comprises the har-

monic series.

Chapter 8

166

spectral content, will be present in the spectral envelope tier, including the

fundamental frequency.

The spectral envelope maps the dynamic levels and contours of all partials.

Much signiﬁ cant information on pitch deﬁ nition and the character of the

sound is contained in the spectral envelope. By describing this activity,

the listener is communicating very pertinent and meaningful information

about the sound that is completely objective, and can be experienced and

understood by others.

If individual spectral components were very difﬁ cult to separate from a

fused spectrum, hearing how those components change in terms of loud-

ness over time is extraordinarily difﬁ cult. When one becomes adept at hear-

ing individual partials (especially the more prominent lower partials), one

can begin to make observations on how those partials change in amplitude

over time and how their level relates to the RDL. The information of how

the spectrum changes over time is very important, and even general obser-

vations that stem from the pitch deﬁ nition tier can lead one to understand

this information.

Figure 8-1

Sound-

quality characteristics

graph.

Time

Spectral

Envelope

Spectral

Content

Dynamic

Contour

Pitch

Definition

Evaluating Sound Quality

167

Process of Evaluating Sound Quality

The sound quality characteristics graph will be used to help make sound

quality evaluations. The graph greatly assists in a detailed evaluation of a

sound and allows the reader to record observations of any sound, whether

or not a detailed evaluation is undertaken. Pertinent information can be

written down that can provide a resource for objective descriptions formu-

lated at a later time.

The process of evaluating sound quality should follow this sequence of

events:

1. During the ﬁ rst hearing(s), listen to the example to establish the length

of the time line. At the same time, notice prominent states and activity

of the components (especially dynamic contour and spectral content)

against the time line.

2. Check the time line for accuracy and make any alterations.

3. Notice the activity of the component parts of sound quality for their

boundaries of levels of activity and speed of activity. The speed bound-

aries will establish the smallest time units required in the graph to

accurately present the smallest signiﬁ cant change of the element. The

boundaries of levels will establish the smallest increment of the

Y-axis

required to plot the smallest change of each component (dynamic con-

tour, spectral content, spectral envelope).

4. Pitch deﬁ nition observations are next. Begin by making general obser-

vations about the pitch quality of the sound. Identify precise points in

time when the sound is at its most pitched and least pitched states, and

assign a relative value. Use these levels as references to complete this

contour of pitch deﬁ nition. The prominence of the fundamental frequen-

cy and the number and relative loudness levels of harmonics greatly

inﬂ uence the pitch quality of the sound source. Knowing when a sound

is more pitched than other times provides information that can be used

in determining the spectral content and spectral envelope of the sound.

5. Begin plotting the activity of the dynamic envelope on the graph. First,

determine the RDL of the sound by identifying its performance inten-

sity. Second, establish the beginning and ending dynamic levels of the

sound. The highest or lowest dynamic levels are the next to be deter-

mined; then place them against the time line. Use these levels as points

of reference to judge the activity of the preceding and following mate-

rial. Alternate your focus on the contour, speed, and amounts of level

changes to complete the plotting of the dynamic contour. The evalu-

ation is complete when the smallest signiﬁ cant detail has been per-

ceived, understood, and added to the graph. The smallest time incre-

ment of the time line may need to be altered at this stage to allow the

dynamic contour to be clearly presented on the graph.

6. Plot the spectral content on the graph. First, identify the frequency/

pitch levels of the prominent spectral components and the fundamental

Chapter 8

168

frequency. Knowledge of the sound of the harmonic series will prove

valuable here. Map the presence of these frequencies against the time

line, clearly showing their entrances and exits from the spectrum.

Finally, map any changes in the pitch/frequency levels of these partials

against the time line. Certain spectral components may not be present

throughout the duration of the sound. It is not unusual for harmonics

and overtones to enter and exit the spectrum. This evaluation is com-

plete when all of the spectral components that can be perceived by the

listener are added to the graph. Accuracy and detail will increase mark-

edly with experience and practice on the part of the listener. With time

and acquired skill, this process will yield much signiﬁ cant information

on the sound. Initial attempts may not yield enough information to

accurately deﬁ ne the sound source, but will improve substantially over

time.

7. Plot the dynamic activity of the partials on the spectral-envelope tier

of the graph. Use the same RDL as the dynamic-envelope tier. First,

establish the beginning and ending levels of each of the spectral com-

ponents that were identiﬁ ed in Step 6. For each of the spectral compo-

nents, determine the highest or lowest dynamic levels and any other

prominent points of reference within the dynamic contours. Use these

points of reference to evaluate the preceding and following material. To

complete plotting the activity, alternate focus on the con-

tour, speed, and amounts of level changes. The dynamic

envelopes of all of the spectral components are plotted on

this tier. The evaluation is complete when the smallest sig-

niﬁ cant dynamic level change has been incorporated into

the graph.

Many hearings will be involved for each of the steps above.

Each listening should seek speciﬁ c new information and

should conﬁ rm what has already been noticed about the

material. Remember to work from what is known to deter-

mine what is unknown.

Before listening to the material, the listener must be pre-

pared to extract certain information, to conﬁ rm their previ-

ous observations, and to be receptive to new discoveries about the sound

quality. A clear sense of the correct perspective and the speciﬁ c informa-

tion that is being sought will make the listening session more successful.

The listener should check any previous observations often, although their

listening attention may be seeking new information.

Listen . . .

to track 3

for the harmonics and overtones

of the sustained piano notes. You

will notice changes in the spec -

trum of the pitches over their

long durations.

Evaluating Sound Quality

169

The sound quality characteristics graph incorporates:

1. A multitiered

Y-axis, distributed to complement the characteristics of

the musical example: one tier with dynamic areas for dynamic enve-

lope (with notated RDL), one tier with pitch register designations for

spectral content, one tier with dynamic areas for spectral envelope

(with notated RDL), and a fourth tier designating a pitched-to-non-

pitched scale;

2. The

X-axis of the graph dedicated to a time line that is divided into an

appropriate increment of clock time (the increment will vary depending

on the material);

3. Each spectral component plotted as a single line, against the two axes;

its pitch characteristics on the spectral content tier, and its dynamic

contour on the spectral envelope tier;

4. Each spectral component’s line should have a different color or compo-

sition, to make each component the same on the two tiers.

Sample Evaluations

Several sound quality evaluations follow. Two are synthesized sounds and

the other is a highly modiﬁ ed (feedback, etc.) electric guitar sound. These

invented timbres are evaluated to determine their unique characteristics

for critical listening use and to better understand their relationships to oth-

er sounds in the music.

Each evaluation is of one identiﬁ ed sounding of the single sound source. A

speciﬁ c appearance of each sound source was selected and evaluated. The

appearance was selected because the sounds’ characteristics are not being

masked by other sound sources and because most of the sounds’ char-

acteristics were audible in the speciﬁ c example. This type of evaluation is

common in recording production; although this type of detail and graphing

is not present, recordists listen for this information and make observations,

though they may not formulate the material in this way.

Figure 8-2 shows the great complexity of the pitch deﬁ nition of the open-

ing guitar sound from “It’s All Too Much” (

Yellow Submarine, 1999). The

pitch deﬁ nition changes are reﬂ ected in changes to the spectral envelope.

They are closely associated. In observing the spectral content tier, one can

determine the dominance of harmonics and note the overtones present.

The dynamic envelope exhibits many subtle changes in loudness level

throughout the nearly 15-second duration of the sound.

Chapter 8

170

Figure 8-2

Sound quality evaluation of the opening guitar sound from The Beatles’ “It’s All Too Much” (Yel-

low Submarine, 1999).

Spectral

Envelope

Spectral

Content

Dynamic

Contour

Pitch

Definition

0 .5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15

Starts at .07 in the song

G6 G6

G5 G5

♭

D5 D5

♭

Evaluating Sound Quality

171

Figures 8-3 and 8-4 are sound quality evaluations of Moog synthesiz-

er sounds from Abbey Road. The different waveforms used for the two

sounds make for differences in spectral content. The simplicity of the early

instrument is reﬂ ected in the basic contours of the dynamic envelope and

spectral envelope, and the inclusion of only harmonics in the spectrum of

each sound.

As an exercise, bring your attention to focus on each tier during four sepa-

rate hearings. Try to identify all of the information present in these three

sound quality evaluations. Search the sound quality of the instrument to

ﬁ nd the graphed information.

Figure 8-3

Sound

quality evaluation

of the Moog synthe-

sizer sound from The

Beatles’ “Maxwell’s

Silver Hammer,” at

51.1 seconds (Abbey

Road).

Spectral

Envelope

Spectral

Content

Dynamic

Contour

Pitch

Definition

0.1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.91.01.1



Chapter 8

172

Figure 8-4

Sound

quality evaluation

of the Moog synthe-

sizer sound from The

Beatles’ “Here Comes

the Sun,” at 0:12

(Abbey Road).

Spectral

Envelope

Spectral

Content

Dynamic

Contour

Pitch

Definition

0 .2 .4. .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8



A “Describing Sound” exercise appears at the end of this chapter. All peo-

ple in the audio industry talk about sound, and in doing so describe its

qualities. This exercise will get the reader to think about sound for what

is present, not how it makes them feel or how it reminds them of other

senses or experiences. When the four components of sound quality are

described, the content of the sound can be clearly communicated.

The Moog sound from “Maxwell’s Silver Hammer” that appears in Figure

8-3 could be described in this way. Pitch deﬁ nition begins at nonpitched

at the attack of the sound, and moves to pitched by 0.1 seconds, where

it remains pitched for the remaining second of the sound’s duration. Its

dynamic envelope begins in mp and gradually rises to mid-mf by 0.8 sec-

onds, where it remains before beginning a gradual decay at 0.9 seconds;

all dynamics are relative to the sound’s RDL of about 10% into mf. The spec-

trum of the sound is composed of the lower four harmonics based on a

fundamental frequency of F#2. The spectral envelope demonstrates dra-

matic changes in level of the second harmonic (F#3), as it moves from much

softer to louder than the fundamental, and the third and fourth harmonics

Evaluating Sound Quality

173

increase loudness by lesser amounts but at the same time and speed as

the second harmonic; the fundamental frequency is at the top 5% of mp at

the beginning of the sound and changes loudness in a slight arc over the

sound’s duration.

The reader should next perform the Sound Quality Evaluation Exercise at

the end of this chapter. A very important skill will be gradually acquired with

some focused effort. As skill develops over a period of time, the record-

ist will gain considerable awareness of the content of sound qualities. The

recordist will begin to hear things they previously could not imagine. A

new world of sound will present itself, as will a new way of understanding

that world.

Summary

The ability to evaluate and communicate about sound quality and timbre

is extremely important for the synthesist, sound designer, recording engi-

neer, and producer. It is also required of nearly all positions in the audio

industry.

Sound quality evaluation is used in many activities in recording production.

We evaluate sound when we create an equalizer setting or set a compressor;

we compare sound qualities when we move microphones around to deter-

mine the most appropriate placement, and evaluate sound when selecting

microphones. We evaluate sound to identify the quality of the signal we are

recording, and to verify that quality (on all levels of perspective and in all of

the parameters of sound) throughout the process of crafting a recording.

The sound quality evaluations performed by following the method pre-

sented in this chapter will allow the reader to readily recognize the unique

characters of sounds. Learning to recognize and describe the activities of

the component parts of sound quality will allow the reader to talk about

sound articulately and to share information that is pertinent and readily

understood by others.

The skills gained through the previous chapters are brought together in

the many steps of sound quality (and timbre) evaluation. Pitch and pitch-

area estimation, melodic and dynamic-contour mapping, and judging

time increments are all now used for a more demanding task, and a very

important one. These skills should become highly reﬁ ned, and be continu-

ally developed through carefully considering how the recording process is

altering, capturing, or creating sound quality. The audio professional will be

continually engaged in evaluating sound. Recognizing and understanding

the characteristics of sound quality are the ﬁ rst steps towards communicat-

ing accurate and relevant information about sound. Learning to hear and

recognize the components of sound quality/timbre will allow the recordist

to control their craft in shaping recordings.

Chapter 8

174

Exercises

Exercise 8-1

Describing Sound Exercise

The purpose of this exercise is to develop an approach to talking about sound

that discusses the sound’s physical components.

1. Select a sound and record it, playing only one pitch. A sound from the

enclosed CD may be used.

2. Write down your observations of the time line: how long does the sound

last?

3. Make general observations of the pitch deﬁ nition of the sound. Does it

start with a burst of noise (like a piano)? Are there areas where the sound

changes in pitch quality? Is the sound mostly pitched or mostly noise-

like?

4. Next describe the dynamic envelope. How does the dynamic envelope

change during the sound’s duration? What is the speed of the attack and

initial decay? What is the sustain level in relation to the attack?

5. Describe the spectrum of the sound. Is it dominated by harmonics? Where

are overtones present in relation to the fundamental? Is there a different

spectrum during the onset than in the body of the sound?

6. Describe the spectral envelope. Are some partials prominent? Is the fun-

damental louder than the remainder of the spectrum? How does the

spectrum change over time?

Practice talking about sound in this way whenever you are working with an

audio device. Ask yourself: What I am hearing related to the actual sound

wave? What are its current qualities, or how are those qualities changing?

This will bring you to be able to quickly evaluate sounds in a meaningful way,

and to be able to explain to others what needs to be done to obtain desired

results or what the wonderful qualities of your drum sounds are—speciﬁ cally

and understandably.

Practice describing sounds this way without ﬁ rst creating a sound quality

evaluation graph, and then after creating the graph.

Exercise 8-2

Sound Quality Evaluation Exercise

Find a sound that is a complex waveform (containing overtones as well as

harmonics) with a duration of at least ﬁ ve seconds. A single occurrence of the

sound should be identiﬁ ed and evaluated. A sound that is isolated from other

Evaluating Sound Quality

175

sounds (does not have other sounds occurring simultaneously) will be easiest

to evaluate. Make a recording of the sound to more easily repeat hearings of

the sound.

Perform a sound quality evaluation on the sound by using the following

sequence of activities. See the chapter for more detail, as needed.

1. During the ﬁ rst hearing(s), listen to the example to establish the length of

the time line.

2. Check the time line for accuracy and make any alterations.

3. Notice the activity of the component parts of sound quality for their

boundaries of levels of activity and speed of activity, and establish the

smallest increment of the Y-axis required to plot the smallest change of

each component (dynamic contour, spectral content, spectral envelope).

4. Place pitch-deﬁ nition observations on the graph.

5. Plot the activity of the dynamic envelope on the graph.

6. Identify the spectral content of the sound and place the partials on the

graph.

7. Plot the dynamic activity of the partials on the spectral-envelope tier of

the graph.

When completed, review your sound quality evaluation graph and compare

the activities of all tiers. Summarize and describe how the physical dimensions

of the sound appear and change throughout the duration of the sound as in

Exercise 8-1, but in greater detail.

176

9 Evaluating the Spatial Elements

of Reproduced Sound

The spatial characteristics and relationships of sound sources are an integral

part of music and audio productions. Spatial elements are precisely control-

lable in audio recording, and sophisticated ways of using these elements

have developed in audio and music productions. Spatial relationships and

characteristics often present signiﬁ cant qualities in current music recordings,

and are also important considerations in critical listening applications.

The evaluation of the spatial characteristics of stereo recordings covers

three primary areas: (1) localization on a single horizontal plane in front of

the listener, (2) localization in distance from the listener, and (3) the quali-

ties of environmental characteristics. Surround sound recording replaces

localization in front with localization 360° around the listener. The elements

of environmental characteristics and distance illusions further interact and

create other sound characteristics that must be evaluated in both formats.

The recordist must be able to evaluate these characteristics to properly

evaluate recorded/reproduced sound. Many of the skills required to evalu-

ate the spatial characteristics of a recording have been gradually developed

throughout the previous four chapters. These skills of sound quality evalua-

tion, time judgments, pitch estimation, and dynamic contour mapping will

be used again (from a new perspective) to recognize and evaluate the spa-

tial elements of reproduced sound. The further development of these skills

will again require patience and practice.

An accurate evaluation of the spatial elements is only possible under cer-

tain conditions. The listener must be located correctly with respect to the

loudspeakers of the playback system. This is critical to accurately hear

directional cues. The sound system must interact correctly with the listen-

ing environment to complement the reproduced sound. Reproduced sound

can be radically altered by the characteristics of the playback room and

the placement of loudspeakers within the room. Further, the sound system

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

177

itself must be capable of reproducing frequency, amplitude, and spatial

cues accurately.

Many of the concepts of the spatial elements have not previously been well

deﬁ ned. The length of this chapter is the result of the number of important

spatial elements of sounds in recordings, the methods one must use to

perform meaningful evaluations of these elements, and the explanations

required of new concepts.

Understanding Space as an Artistic Element

Spatial characteristics and relationships are used as artistic elements in

music productions. They are used as primary and secondary elements that

help to shape the unique character of musical ideas. Space has the poten-

tial of being the most important artistic element in a musical idea, but most

often serves to support other elements. It may support other elements by

delineating musical materials, by adding new dimensions to the unique

character of the sound source or musical idea, and/or by adding to the

motion or direction of a musical idea. It is also among the primary qualities

of the overall texture of the recording.

Perceived Performance Environment

The listener acquires an impression of the spatial characteristics of the

recording through the sound stage and imaging. They will imagine a

performance space wherein the reproduced sound can exist during the

re- performance of listening to the recording. The listener will perceive

individual sound sources to be at speciﬁ c locations within a

perceived

performance environment

The recording represents an illusion of a live performance. The listener will

conceive the performance as existing in a real, physical space, because

the human mind will interpret any human activity in relationship to the

known physical experiences of the individual. The recording will appear

to be contained within a single, perceived physical space (the perceived

performance environment), because in human experience we can only be

in one place at one time.

The perceived performance environment will have an audible, character-

istic sound quality that is established in one of two ways. The qualities of

the perceived performance environment may be established by applying

a set of environmental characteristics to the overall program (i.e., process-

ing the ﬁ nal mix). Most often, the perceived performance environment is

a composite of many perceived environments and environmental cues. In

these instances, the listener formulates an impression of a perceived per-

formance environment through interrelationships of many environmental

characteristics cues. These cues may be (1) common or complementary

Chapter 9

178

between the environments of the individual sound sources, (2) prominent

characteristics of the environments of prominent sound sources (source

that presents the most important musical materials, or the loudest, the

nearest, or the furthest sound sources, as examples), and/or (3) the result

of environmental characteristics found in both of these areas.

Further, the listener will obtain a sense they are at a speciﬁ c location within

the perceived performance environment. The listener might be aware of

their relationship to the sidewalls and any objects (balconies, seating, etc.)

in the performance environment, to the wall behind and the ceiling above

their location, and of their relationship to the front wall of the performance

environment.

The listener will also calculate their location with respect to the front of the

sound stage.

Figure 9-1

The sound

stage within the per-

ceived performance

environment.

PERCEIVED PERFORMANCE ENVIRONMENT

Sound Stage

Variable perceived distances:

Sound Stage and Imaging

Within this perceived performance environment is a two-dimensional area

(horizontal plane and distance) where the performance is occurring—the

sound stage. The sound stage is the location, where the sound sources are

perceived to be collectively located, as a single ensemble. The listener will

unconsciously group all sources into a single performance area. The per-

formance (that is the recording) will thus emanate from a single location.

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

179

The area of the sound stage may be any size. The size of the sound stage

may appear to be anything from a small, well-deﬁ ned point (an inﬁ nitesi-

mally small world), to a space occupying an area extending from immedi-

ately in front of the listener to a location (spanning a great distance) well

beyond our sight line (perhaps conceived as being an area beyond the size

of anything possible on Earth) and, within the horizontal plane, ﬁ lling an

area beyond the stereo array.

The sound stage may be located at any distance from the listener. The

placement of the front edge of the sound stage may be immediately in

front of the listener, or at any conceivable distance from the listener.

The perceived distances of the sound sources from the listener determine

the depth of the sound stage. The sound source that is perceived as near-

est to the listener will mark the front edge of the sound stage. The sound

source that is perceived as being furthest from the listener will deﬁ ne the

back of the sound stage and will also help to establish the rear wall of

the perceived performance environment. The perceived location of the

rear boundary (wall) will be determined by the relationship of the furthest

sound source to its own host environment. The rear wall of the perceived

performance environment may be located immediately behind the furthest

sound source, or some space may exist between the furthest sound source

and the rear wall of the sound stage/perceived performance environment.

All sound sources will occupy their own location in the sound stage. Two

sound sources cannot be conceived as occupying the same physical loca-

tion. Our sensibilities will not allow this to occur. It is possible for different

sound sources to occupy signiﬁ cantly different locations within the sound

stage, anywhere between the two boundaries.

Imaging is the perceived loca-

tion of the individual sound sources within the two perceived dimensions of

the sound stage (see Figure 9-2). Sources are located within the sound stage

by their angle (on the horizontal plane) and distance from the listener.

Chapter 9

180

Figure 9-2

Imaging of

sound sources within

the sound stage.

PERCEIVED PERFORMANCE ENVIRONMENT

Listener’s Perceived

Location

Sound Stage

High Kybd

High Hat

Lead Vocal

Background Vocals

Acoustic Guitar

Bass Drum

Low Keyboard

Flute

Bass

Tambourine

Perceived

Depth

Sound

Stage

Perceived Width

of Sound Stage

Environments of Individual Sources

The placement of each source within its own environment inﬂ uences imag-

ing. The characteristics of the unique performance environments of each

sound source might enrich source width and distance cues, and enhance

the dimensions of the sound stage. In current music productions, it is

common for each instrument (sound source) to be placed in its own host

environment. This host environment of the individual sound source (a per-

ceived physical space) is further imagined to exist within the perceived

performance environment of the recording (a perceived physical space).

This creates an illusion of a

space existing within another space.

The environments of the sound sources and the overall program may be

of any size. The acoustical characteristics of just about any space may be

simulated by modern technology. The sound sources may

be processed so that the cues of any acoustical environ-

ment may be added to the individual sound source, to

any group of sound sources, or to the entire program.

Not only is it possible to simulate the acoustical charac-

teristics of known, physical spaces, it is possible to devise

environment programs that simulate open air environ-

ments (under any variety of conditions) and programs that

provide cues that are acoustically impossible within our

known world of physical realities.

Listen . . .

to tracks 42-44

for narrow and wide guitar phan-

tom images, and a narrow image

broadened by reverberation.

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

181

Figure 9-3

Space

within space.

Figure 9-3 presents an easily accomplished set of environmental relation-

ships, with individual sound sources appearing in very different and unique

environments:

• Timpani placed in an open-air environment

• A stringed instrument placed in a large concert hall

• A vocalist performing in a small performance hall

• A piano sounding in small room

• A cymbal appearing to exist in a very unnatural (perhaps otherworldly

or outer space), remarkably large environment

These many simulated acoustical environments are perceived as existing

within the overall space of the perceived performance environment. The

spaces of the individual sources are within the space of the perceived per-

formance environment. It is possible for more than one source to be placed

within an environment. Sources contained within the same environment

may have considerably different distance locations, or they may be similar.

The environments of the sound sources and the overall program may be

in any size relationship to one another. The environment of a sound source

may have the characteristics of a physically large space, and the perceived

performance environment may have the characteristics of a much smaller

physical environment. This is a common relationship, and the reverse is

also possible (though more difﬁ cult to achieve). The spaces of the indi-

vidual sound sources are understood (by the listener) to exist within the

all-encompassing perceived performance environment, no matter the per-

ceived physical dimensions of the spaces involved.

PERCEIVED PERFORMANCE ENVIRONMENT

Sound Stage

Chapter 9

182

The spaces of the individual sound sources are subor-

dinate spaces that exist within the overall space of the

recording. A further possibility (not commonly used, at

present) exists for subordinate spaces to appear within

other subordinate spaces, within the perceived perfor-

mance environment.

Space within space is a hierarchy of

environments existing within other environments. Its cre-

ative applications have not been fully exploited in current

music production practices.

The characteristics of the perceived performance environment function as

a reference for determining the characteristics of the individual environ-

ments of the individual sound sources. All of the environments of a record-

ing will have common characteristics that are created by the perceived

environmental characteristics of the perceived performance environment

(as discussed above). These characteristics provide a reference for deter-

mining the unique characteristics of the individual performance environ-

ments of the individual sound sources.

The characteristics of the perceived performance environment also func-

tion as a frame of reference for the listener in determining the distance

locations of the individual sound sources within the sound stage.

Distance in Recordings

Distance is perceived as a deﬁ nition of timbral detail. It is further calculat-

ed in relation to the characteristics of the environment in which the sound

exists, as well as the perceived location of the sound source and the listener

within that environment. The listener will perceive the distance of the sound

source as it is sounding within its unique environment. The listener will then

unconsciously transfer that distance to the perceived performance environ-

ment, combining any perceived distance of the source’s environment from

the listener’s location in the perceived performance environment.

The actual distance location placement of the sound source within the

sound stage is determined by (1) the distance between the sound source

and the perceived location of the listener within the individual source’s

environment combined with (2) the perceived distance of that environment

from the listener’s location in the perceived performance environment. All

this information blends into a single impression of distance. Through this

process, sound sources (with and within their environments) are conceived

at speciﬁ c distances from the listener. This is all accomplished subliminally.

The placement of sounds at a distance and at an angle from the listener

(imaging) takes place at the perspective level of the perceived performance

environment.

Listen . . .

to tracks 45-47

for a number of different space

within space relationships.

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

183

Directional Location

Sound sources (with their individual environments and conceived distance

locations) will be located at an angle from the listener. Directional location

is used differently in stereo and surround formats.

The

stereo location will place sound sources on the sound stage, within

the stereo loudspeaker array, at an angle of direction from the listener. The

size of sound source images can be narrow and a precisely deﬁ ned point

in space, or it can occupy an area between two boundaries. Sources that

occupy an area may be of any reproducible width and may be located at

any reproducible location within the stereo array. Further, under certain

production practices, it is possible for sound sources to appear to occupy

two separate locations or areas within the stereo array.

Figure 9-4

Listener

within the sound

stage in surround

sound.

PERCEIVED PERFORMANCE ENVIRONMENT

Sound

Ls Rs

Stage

Surround location of sound sources is more complex. Location of sound

sources may be at any angle from the listener. The listener may actually

be placed within the sound stage (Figure 9-4), or the surround speakers

may be used solely for environment information, allowing the sound stage

to remain in front of the listener (Figure 9-5). Sound-source size (width)

remains variable, but now may be anything from a single point in space

to completely enveloping the listener. Further, sources may readily occupy

several locations simultaneously.

Chapter 9

184

Production practice for surround is currently being deﬁ ned, and the poten-

tials of the medium are being explored. How the complex potential of

sound location around the listener ultimately translates into our music lis-

tening experiences will be deﬁ ned over the upcoming years. The listener

and audio professional must remain receptive to possibilities, as this new

technology shapes music, music listening and the creation of recordings.

Figure 9-5

Listener

enveloped by environ-

mental cues, sound

stage in front.

PERCEIVED PERFORMANCE ENVIRONMENT

Sound

Ls Rs

Stage

Ambiance

(Environmental Cues)

Stereo Sound Location

Sound location is evaluated within the stereo array to determine the location

and size of the images of the sound sources. These cues will hold signiﬁ cant

information for understanding the mix of the piece and may contribute sig-

niﬁ cantly to shaping the musical ideas themselves. Phantom images may

also change locations or size during a piece of music. These changes may be

sudden or gradual. The changes may be prominent or subtle.

The

stereo sound-location graph will plot the locations of all sound sources

against the time line of the work. The graph portrays the direction of sourc-

es from the listener and the size of the phantom images.

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

185

Left and right loudspeaker locations and the center position are identiﬁ ed on

the graph. The actual boundaries of the vertical axis extend slightly beyond the

loudspeaker locations (up to 15º). Placing the sound source’s location within

the L-R speaker-location boundaries represents source angle from the listen-

er. Precise degree-increments of angle can be incorporated into the graph;

they are often unnecessary, depending on the nature of the recording.

60º

90º

15º

60º

45º

40º

30º

20º

10º

0º

10º

20º

30º

40º

45º

Right

Left

Center

Time

45º

20º

10º

Left

10º

20º

45º

Right

Center

60º

Figure 9-6

Calculation

of degree-increments

for location and the

Y-axis of the stereo

sound location graph.

The stereo sound location graph incorporates:

1. The left and right loudspeaker locations, a designation for the center of

the stereo array, and space slightly beyond the two loudspeaker loca-

tions as the

Y-axis; degree divisions may be added to the Y-axis for

greater detail if the music will be better understood by such divisions;

2. The graph will become unclear if too many sound sources (especially

many spread images) are placed on the same tier; the

Y-axis may be

broken up into any number of similar tiers (each the same as listed in

Step 1) to clearly present the material on a single graph;

3. The

X-axis of the graph is dedicated to a time line that is divided into

an appropriate increment of the metric grid, or is representative of a

major section of the piece (or the entire piece) for sound sources that

do not change locations;

Chapter 9

186

4. A single line is plotted against the two axes for each sound source; the

line will occupy a large, colored/shaded area in the case of the spread

image; and

5. A key will be required to clearly relate the sound sources to the graph.

It should be consistent with keys used for other similar analyses (such

as musical balance and performance intensity) to allow different analy-

ses to be easily compared.

A sound source may occupy a speciﬁ c point in the horizontal plane of the

sound stage, or it may occupy an area within the sound stage. The graph

will dedicate a source line to each sound source and will plot the stereo

locations of each source against a common time line.

The source line for point source images will be a clearly deﬁ ned line at

the location of the sound source. The source line for the spread image will

occupy an area of the sound stage and will extend between the boundaries

of the image itself.

Figure 9-7

Stereo

sound-location graph.

Left

Right

Center

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Spread Image

Point Source

45º

20º

10º

20º

45º

It is common for stereo sound-location graphs to be multitier, placing

spread images on separate tiers from point sources or providing a number

of separate tiers for spread images. Figure 9-7 presents a single-tier stereo

sound-location graph, containing two sound sources: one spread image

and one point source. It also incorporates angle increments out from the

center in degrees. The speakers should appear at 30° right and left.

Figure 9-8 presents the stereo-sound location of a number of the sound

sources from The Beatles’ work, “A Day in the Life.” The location, size, and

movements of the sound-source images directly contribute to the character

and expression of the related musical materials. As an exercise, listen to

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

187

the recording and notice the placement of the percussion sounds. Observe

and deﬁ ne the stereo locations of the percussion sounds as they comple-

ment the placements of the voice, bass, piano, guitar, and maracas to bal-

ance the sound stage.

Figure 9-8

Multitier

stereo sound location

graph—The Beatles’

“A Day in the Life.”

Intro

1 2 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

measures of (except where marked)

Bridge

Voice

KEY

Bass

Maracas

Guitar

Piano

Verse 1 Verse 2 Verse 3

Locations and image size do not often change within sections of a work.

Changes are most likely to occur between sections of a piece, or at rep-

etitions of ideas or sections (where changes in the mix often occur). The

listener should, however, never assume changes do not occur. Gradual or

subtle changes in source locations and size are present in many pieces and

sometimes in pieces where such events are not expected. The changes in

source size and location from

Abbey Road works discussed in Chapter 2

will not be noticed unless the listener is willing to focus on this artistic ele-

ment and is prepared to hear these changes.

The reader should work through the Stereo Location Exercise (9-1) at the

end of this chapter to reﬁ ne this skill.

Chapter 9

188

Distance Location

Distance localization and stereo localization combine to provide imaging

for sound sources. Figure 9-9 is an empty stereo sound stage onto which

sound sources are imagined to be located. Placing sounds on this empty

sound stage will allow the listener to make quick, initial observations regard-

ing stereo imaging. These observations can then lead to the more detailed

evaluations of stereo location and distance location. It is important to note

that these location observations will relate to speciﬁ c moments in time or to

sections of a work (speciﬁ c periods of time). While location changes cannot

be written on this ﬁ gure, it is useful for initial observations and for graphing

sources that do not change. In production work, this ﬁ gure can be helpful in

constructing and planning mixes, and for keeping track of parts.

Figure 9-9

Empty

sound stage.

PERCEIVED PERFORMANCE ENVIRONMENT

Sound Stage

Distance is the perceived location of the sound source from the listener. It

is a location where the listener envisions the sound to be placed along the

depth of the sound stage. We hear sounds as occupying a speciﬁ c location

point of distance from our location. Sounds do not occupy distance areas.

A source environment may provide an area of depth to the image, but the

source will be heard as located at a precise point within that environment.

The environment and source fuse into a single sound impression that will

occupy an area of distance, with the source localized at a speciﬁ c spot in it.

The perceived source locations nearest to and furthest from the listener

establish the front and rear boundaries of the sound stage. The front edge

of the sound stage may be immediately in front of the listener, or at any

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

189

distance. The depth of the sound stage will be heard as a single dimension

of the area that contains all sound sources.

Understanding Distance Location

The reader must approach distance location carefully. Distance cues are

often not accurately perceived. Other artistic elements are often confused

with distance. Further, humans mostly rely on sight to calculate distance

and are not normally called upon to focus on aural distance cues.

Distance is NOT loudness. In nature, distant sounds are often softer than

near sounds. This is not necessarily the case in recording production. Loud-

ness does not directly contribute to distance localization in audio record-

ings. At times loudness and distance cues are associated in recordings, but

this is often not the case—especially in multitrack and synthesized produc-

tions. A “fade out” can be accomplished without causing source distances

to increase. Conversely, a fade out may cause sound sources to be per-

ceived as increasing in distance. The distance increase will be the result of

a diminishing level of timbral detail, it will not be the result of decreasing

dynamic level.

Very often, people will describe a sound as being “out in front,” implying

a closer distance. The sound may actually be louder than other sounds or

may stand out of the musical texture because of the prominence of some

other aspect of its sound quality. Much potential exists for confusing dis-

tance with dynamic levels.

Distance is NOT determined by or the result of the amount of reverberation

placed on a sound source. In nature, distant sounds are often composed of

a high proportion of reverberant energy in relation to direct sound. Rever-

berant energy does play a role in distance localization, but not so promi-

nent a role that it can be used as a primary reference. Reverberant energy

is most important as an attribute of environmental characteristics and in

placing a sound source at a distance within the individual source environ-

ment. Humans perceive distance within environments, through time and

amplitude information extracted from processing the many reﬂ ections of

the direct sound. The ratio of direct to reﬂ ected sound inﬂ uences distance

location. Thus, reverberation contributes to our localization of distance, but

it is NOT the primary determinant of distance location, in and of itself.

Distance is NOT the perceived distance of the microphone to the sound

source that was present during the recording process. The only exception

to this statement occurs when the initial recording is performed with a

single stereo pair of microphones, and no signal processing is performed

on the overall program. Microphone-to-sound source distance is a con-

tributor to the timbral characteristics of the sound source. Microphone-

to-sound source distance will determine the amount of deﬁ nition of the

sound source’s timbre (how much timbral detail is present in the sound)

Chapter 9

190

captured by the recording process. It will also determine the amount of

the sound of the initial recording environment that has become part of the

sound source’s timbre. Generally, the closer the microphone to the sound

source, the greater the deﬁ nition of timbral components captured during

the recording process. This will provide distance localization information,

in such a way that very close microphone placement will cause the image

to be perceived very close to the listener (if no timbral modiﬁ cations or

signal processing is performed in the mixing process). The sound quality

may be signiﬁ cantly altered in the mix, signiﬁ cantly altering microphone-

to-sound source distance cues. Microphone-to-sound source distance con-

tributes to the overall sound quality of the source’s timbre. It contributes

to our localization of distance through deﬁ nition of timbral detail, but it is

NOT a primary determinant of distance localization.

Distance location IS primarily the result of timbral information and detail.

Timbre differences between the sound source as it is remembered in an

unaltered state and the sound as it exists in the recording primary deter-

mine distance localization. The listener is aware of how timbres are altered

over various distances. It is through the perception of these changes that

we identify the distance of a source from our listening location. Humans

are unable to estimate the physical distance (meters, feet, etc.) of a sound

source from their location. We perceive distances in relative terms and

compare locations to one another. In our everyday activities we mostly rely

on sight to make distance judgments. Therefore, our ability to focus on the

“sound” of distance has not been encouraged by our real-life experiences,

and will take focused effort to develop.

We rely on timbral deﬁ nition for most of our distance judgments and use

the ratio of direct-to-reverberant sound to a lesser degree. The extent to

which we rely on either factor depends on the particular context. Distance

localization is a complex process, relying on many variables that are incon-

sistent between environments.

The listener knows the sound qualities of sound sources within the area

immediately around them. The listener has a sense of occupying an area,

encompassing a space immediately around them. This area serves as a ref-

erence from which we judge “near” and “far.” Within this area, sounds have

no changes in timbre. All characteristics of timbral content are present, and

sounds will have more detailed deﬁ nition the closer they are to the listener.

The overall sound quality of the sound source may be somewhat altered

by the characteristics of the host environment, but the level of detail pres-

ent in the timbre causes the listener to perceive the source as being within

their immediate area of

proximity. This space that immediately surrounds

the listener is called proximity and is the listener’s own personal space.

Sounds in proximity are perceived as being close, as occurring within the

area the listener occupies. The actual size or area of proximity may be per-

ceived as being rather large or very small, depending on the context of the

material and the perspective of the listener.

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

191

Figure 9-10

Contin-

uum for designating

distance location.

Proximity Near Far

Horizon of detailed

distance perception

Adjacent

considerable changes in timbre Sounds are difficult to

recognize, and localize

moderate changes in source timbre Distance relationships begin to

lack definable localization

moderate changes in source timbre

Sound sources begin to lack

definition of sound quality

slight changes in source timbre

Just beyond the listener’s

immediate vicinity of proximity

Listener

extreme level of detail in timbral components

no alterations

of sound source

timbre

moderate level of definition of timbral components

The listener knows the sound qualities of sound sources at “near” distanc-

es. We conceive “near” as being immediately outside of the area that we

perceive ourselves as occupying. Throughout this “near” area, the listener

is able to localize the sound’s distance with detail and accuracy. Timbres

are very slightly altered in the closest of sounds considered near and are

moderately altered in the furthest of sounds considered near. An area will

exist between these two boundaries where sounds are readily compared

as being closer or farther than other similar sounds. Sounds cease to be

considered near when the listener begins to have difﬁ culty localizing dis-

tances in detail.

“Far” sound sources lack some deﬁ nition of sound quality. The closest of

far sounds will have moderate alterations to sound quality, with little or

no deﬁ nition. Few low amplitude partials will be present, and amplitude

and frequency attack transients will be difﬁ cult to detect. The furthest of

far sounds will have considerable alterations to sound quality; the sounds

will lack all deﬁ nition. The furthest far sounds may even be difﬁ cult to rec-

ognize. A wide area exists between these two boundaries of “far.” It could

conceivably be quite large, perhaps stretching to inﬁ nity. “Far” sounds are

difﬁ cult to place in speciﬁ c distance locations; they tend to be more difﬁ cult

to place within the “far” area, but can be localized quite readily by compar-

ing them with other sounds.

Chapter 9

192

Evaluating Distance Location

The listener will initially focus on distance cues of the sound source at the

perspective of the source within its own host environment. The listener will

intuitively transfer that information to the perspective of the sound stage.

There, the sound source’s degree of timbre deﬁ nition, the perceived dis-

tance of the sound source within its host environment, and the perceived

distance of the source’s host environment from the perceived location of the

listener blend instinctively into a single perception of distance location. This

process will determine the actual perceived distance of the sound source, at

the perspective of imaging. Fortunately, this all happens quite naturally.

Again, the deﬁ nition of, or the amount of, timbral detail present will play

the central role in determining perceived distance.

The boundaries for distance location extend from “adjacent” to the listener

to a distance of “inﬁ nity.” Adjacent is that point in space that is immediately

next to the space the listener is occupying. It should be conceived literally

as being the next molecule available beside the listener, as a sound may be

localized at that location.

The continuum for distance localization consists of three areas. The areas

represent conceptual distance, not physically measurable distance incre-

ments. Distance is thus judged as a concept of space between the sound

source and the listener. An area of proximity surrounds the listener. This

area serves as a reference for judging near and far distances. Human expe-

rience of the nature of sound is used as a reference to conceptualize the

amount of space (distance) between the source and the listener.

The three areas of the continuum are:

1. An area of “proximity,” the space that the listener perceives as their

own area, is the area immediately surrounding the listener that may be

extended in size to be conceived as the size of a small to moderately

sized room. The listener will perceive the proximity area as being their

own immediate space;

2. A “near” area is the area immediately outside of the space that the lis-

tener perceives themselves as occupying, extending to a horizon where

the listener begins to have difﬁ culty localizing distances in detail; and

3. A “far” area, beginning where perception dictates that space ceases

to be “near;” where detailed examination of the sound is difﬁ cult, and

extending to where sounds are almost impossible to recognize. Extreme

far sound sources contain very little deﬁ nition of sound quality.

These three areas are not of equal physical size. The amount of physical dis-

tance contained in the conceptual area of proximity will be considerably dif-

ferent than the physical distance encompassed by the conceptual area of

far. All three areas of the continuum occupy a similar amount of conceptual

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

193

space, but represent signiﬁ cantly different amounts of phys-

ical area. The vertical axis of the distance location graph will

clearly divide the three areas.

The size of the three areas may be adjusted between

appearances of the distance location graph. The amount

of vertical space occupied by the areas may be adjusted

to best suit the material being graphed, with certain areas

being widened in certain contexts and narrowed in others.

The far area may even be omitted in certain graphs. The

area of proximity should always be included (although if necessary it may

be narrowed to occupy less vertical space), to clearly present the conceptual

distance between the perceived location of the listener and the front edge

of the sound stage.

Sound sources will be placed on the graph (1) by evaluating the deﬁ nition

of the sound quality of each sound source (the amount of detail present in

the timbre of the sound source), and incorporating information on the ratio

of direct-to-reverberant sound and the quality of the reverberant sound as

appropriate, and (2) by directly comparing the sound source to the per-

ceived distance locations of the other sound sources present in the musical

context (using proportions of different locations between three or more

sound source distances, to make more meaningful comparisons).

The individual listener’s knowledge of timbre and environmental charac-

teristics, and their ability to recognize the sound source, are variables that

may cause the listener to inaccurately estimate distance. For example, a

very close tamboura may sound like a far sound to a person who does not

know the sound of a tamboura. As the life experience of listeners varies,

so does an individual’s ability to conceptualize the distance relationships

of sounds.

During initial studies, distance judgments may be difﬁ cult to conceive and

perceive. Distance is, however, a central concern of sound-source imaging

and thus of music production. Skill in this area can be reﬁ ned and should

become highly developed.

The

distance location graph incorporates:

1. Continuum from adjacent through inﬁ nity (divided into three areas) as

the

Y-axis;

2. The X-axis of the graph dedicated to a time line divided into an appro-

priate increment of the metric grid;

3. A single line plotted against the two axes for each sound source; and

4. A key that is required to clearly relate the sound sources to the graph.

The key should be consistent with keys used for other similar evalu-

ations (such as musical balance or stereo location) to allow different

elements to be easily compared.

Listen . . .

to track 39-41

for a single cello performance that

is placed in Proximity, Near and

Far distance locations.

Chapter 9

194

The locations of all sources are plotted as single lines. Sources are precise-

ly located at a speciﬁ c distance from the listener. No two sources can be at

the same distance level unless they are at clearly different lateral locations

(placement of phantom image in stereo or surround formats).

Sound sources do not often change distance locations in real time or within

sections of a work. Changes are most likely to occur between sections of

a piece, at entrances or exits of individual sound sources, or at repetitions

of ideas or sections (where changes in the mix often occur). The listener

should, however, never assume changes do not occur. Gradual changes

in distance are present in many pieces. At times a sound will become

unmasked by the exit of another instrument from the mix, and will move

closer to the listener with its increased timbral detail.

The reader is encouraged to work through the Distance Location Exercise

at the end of the chapter.

Figure 9-11

Distance

location graph—The

Beatles’ “A Day in the

Life.”

Intro

1 2 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

measures of (except where marked)

Bridge

Proximity Near Far

Adjacent

Verse 1 Verse 2 Verse 3

Piano

Maracas

Guitar

Voice

Bass

Figure 9-11 is a distance location graph from The Beatles’ “A Day in the Life.”

While the vocal line has a signiﬁ cant percentage of reverberant sound, its

timbral detail brings it to be located in the rear third of the proximity area.

The other sound sources have widely varied distance locations, giving the

sound stage great depth. The guitar, maracas, and bass are also in the prox-

imity area, and the piano is at the front of the near area. As an additional

exercise, the reader should place the percussion sounds in an appropriate

distance location. Notice the great conceptual distances between the vari-

ous instruments of the drum set, as some sounds are located toward the

rear of the far area.

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

195

The fade of “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds” is graphed in Figure 9-12. The

vocal lines and bass do not change distance locations with diminishing

loudness. The snare drum and organ are quite different, and do change

distance locations as their loudness levels decrease. It is interesting to note

that the speed and amounts of perceived distance-location changes are dif-

ferent for the two sounds, as they decrease in loudness almost in parallel.

Figure 9-12

Distance

location graph of the

fade out from The

Beatles’ “Lucy in the

Sky with Diamonds”

(Yellow Submarine,

1999).

108 110 112 114 116 118 120

Proximity Near Far

Adjacent

1 Organ

2 McCartney Vocal

3 Lennon Vocal

4 Bass

5 Snare

KEY

Environmental Characteristics

The characteristics of the sound source’s host environment are important in

shaping four qualities of the recording: (1) the overall quality of the sound

source, (2) the perceived performance environment, (3) space within space,

and (4) the imaging of the sound stage.

The environmental characteristics of the entire program (the perceived

performance environment) shape the illusion of a space in which a per-

formance is occurring. The characteristics of this envisioned performance

environment will greatly inﬂ uence the conceptual setting for the artistic

message of the work.

Environmental characteristics of both the host environments of the individ-

ual sound sources and the perceived performance environment play signiﬁ -

cant roles in music production. These artistic elements have the potential to

provide signiﬁ cant information for enhancing and communicating the musi-

cal message of the piece of music. Currently, they are most often used in

supportive roles. They are coupled with sound quality in deﬁ ning the unique

characters of individual sounds (enhancing their sound quality and providing

Chapter 9

196

each sound with a sense of depth). Environmental characteristics are used as

a separate element in creating depth of sound stage, in providing a resource

for space within space, in creating the illusion of the perceived performance

environment, and in giving breadth and depth to phantom images.

The recordist needs to be able to recognize the characteristics of the envi-

ronments within which sound sources exist, and the characteristics of the

perceived performance environment. This will lead to an understanding

of how they inﬂ uence the recording, and will bring the recordist to more

effectively craft a sound stage within an envisioned environment that best

suits their project.

Evaluating Environmental Characteristics

A composite sound of environmental characteristics occurs with the sound-

ing of a sound source within the environment. The sound source and the

environment interact and fuse to create a composite sound—a new overall

sound quality. To understand the inﬂ uence of the host environment on the

sound source in making this composite sound, the environment and the

sound source must be evaluated separately.

We perceive environmental characteristics as an overall sound quality that

is composed of a number of component parts. As global sound qualities,

environmental characteristics are conceptually similar to timbre. The evalu-

ation of timbre (sound quality) and environmental characteristics will be

similar, in that both will seek to describe the states and activities of the

physical components of sound. While people might recognize large halls,

small halls, and other spaces as having common environmental charac-

teristics, each environment is unique. To meaningfully communicate infor-

mation about environmental characteristics, the audio professional must

deﬁ ne the environment by its unique sound characteristics. These charac-

teristics can only be objectively described through discussing the levels

and activities of the component parts of the environment’s sound.

Environmental characteristics appear as alterations to the sound source’s

timbre, created by the interaction of the sound source and the environ-

ment. The evaluation of the characteristics of the environment therefore

deﬁ nes the changes that have occurred in the sound source’s timbre after

being sounded within the environment. Evaluating environmental charac-

teristics will engage activities that are contrary to our natural tendency to

fuse the environment’s sound with the source’s sound. Care in focusing on

the correct perspective and aspects of sound will be required.

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

197

Environmental characteristics are determined by listeners through com-

paring their memory of the sound source’s timbre outside of the host envi-

ronment to the sound source’s timbre within the host environment. The

listener must go through this comparison process carefully, scanning the

composite sound for information and then comparing that information

with their previous experiences with the timbre of the sound source (at

times considering how the source appeared within other environments).

Differences in the spectrum and spectral envelope of the sound source as

remembered by the listener, and as heard in the host environment, form

the basis for determining most environmental characteristics.

If the listener does not recognize the sound source (timbre) or has no prior

knowledge of the sound source, they will be at a disadvantage in calculat-

ing the characteristics of the host environment. Listeners will have no point

of reference in determining how the environment has altered the timbre of

the original sound source. They must rely on their knowledge of what they

presume to be similar sounds to calculate estimations of the characteris-

tics of the environment. This may or may not turn out to be accurate. Loud

sounds of shorter duration can also be sought, as they expose much time

and spectrum information.

In evaluating environmental characteristics, the listener is seeking to deﬁ ne

the characteristics of the environment itself. The listener must make certain

they are NOT identifying characteristics of the sound source and must make

certain they are NOT identifying characteristics of the sound source within the

environment. The characteristics of the environment can be reduced to three

speciﬁ c component parts. These characteristics are what must be determined

by identifying the differences between the sound quality of the sound source

itself and the sound quality of the sound source within the environment.

The component parts of environmental characteristics are (1) the reﬂ ection

envelope, (2) the spectrum, and (3) the spectral envelope. The environmen-

tal characteristics graph (Figure 9-13) allows for the detailed evaluation of

these three components.

Chapter 9

198

Figure 9-13

Environ-

mental Characteristics

Graph.

Reﬂ ection Envelope

The reﬂ ection envelope is made up of the amplitudes of the initial reﬂ ec-

tions and the reverberant energy of the environment throughout the dura-

tion of the environment’s sound. This envelope is composed of many reit-

erations of the sound source. The reiterations vary in dynamic level and in

spacing between one another (time density).

The spacing of the reiterations of the sound source will be dramatically dif-

ferent over the duration of the sound of the environment (for example, the

spacing of the early reﬂ ections will be considerably different from the spac-

ing of reﬂ ections near the end of the reverberant energy). This portion of the

graph can clearly show the time of arrival of the reﬂ ected sounds to the lis-

tener location, the density of the arrival times of the reﬂ ected sounds, and the

amplitude of those arrivals in relation to the amplitude of the direct sound.

The amplitude of the direct sound is included to serve as a reference level

for the calculation of the dynamic levels of the reﬂ ected sound. The record-

ist should use their skills at pattern recognition to extract time information

from the sound of the environment. The reﬂ ections portion of the graph will

show the following information. The listener should organize their listening

Nominal

Level

Time

Spectral Envelope Spectrum Reflections

Direct

Sound

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

199

to the time elements of the environmental characteristics to recognize this

information:

• Patterns of reﬂ ections created by dynamics

• Patterns of reﬂ ections created by spacings in time

• Spacing of reﬂ ections in the early time ﬁ eld

• Dynamic contour of the entire reﬂ ections portion

• Density (number and spacings of reﬂ ections) of reverberant sound

• Dynamic relationships between the direct sound, individual reﬂ ections

(of the early time ﬁ eld), and the reverberant sound

• Dynamic contour shapes within the reverberant sound

An isolated appearance of the sound source in the host environment must

be found for all of the time and reﬂ ection-amplitude information to be

accurately evaluated. This is especially true for the decay of the reverberant

energy and the spacing of the early reﬂ ections (which are important parts

of the environment’s sound quality). A short (staccato) sound will allow the

reﬂ ection information to be most audible, since it will not have to compete

with the sound of the source itself.

An exercise to develop the reader’s skill in this area appears at the end

of this chapter. The Reﬂ ections and Reverberation Exercise helps readers

understand and recognize this characteristic of environmental sounds even

if they never wish to perform an evaluation as detailed as the reﬂ ection

envelope of the environmental characteristics graph. The exercise will lead

the reader to important observations that can lead to a better understand-

ing and use of environments.

When listening to sounds in actual music recordings, hearing these char-

acteristics is a much greater challenge—and may at times be impossible.

Without the opportunity to hear the environment’s complete presentation,

information related to the reverberant energy might never be complete-

ly audible. The listener should try to ﬁ nd several appearances of a sound

source where it can be heard alone, without other sound sources, and

where it is playing short durations.

Many hearings of the sound in a wide variety of presentations will be nec-

essary to compile an accurate evaluation of all of the time characteristics

of the environment.

Environment Spectrum and Spectral Envelope

The spectrum of the reverberant sound and the initial reﬂ ections is a col-

lection of all frequencies or bandwidths of pitch areas that are emphasized

and de-emphasized by the environment itself. This spectrum will be only

those frequencies that are altered by the environment. The environment

may emphasize or de-emphasize bandwidths of frequencies or speciﬁ c fre-

quencies. Often the spectrum of the environment will only contain a small

Chapter 9

200

number (three to seven) of prominent frequencies or pitch areas that are

either emphasized or attenuated (de-emphasized).

These frequencies are determined through a careful evaluation of many

appearances of the sound source in the environment, by listening to the

way the sound source’s timbre is changed by the environment over a wide

range of pitch levels. Some appearances of the sound source will not have

frequency information in certain frequency areas that are emphasized or

de-emphasized by the environment. The listener must scan many pitch lev-

els of the sound source to determine the spectral content and the spectral

envelope of its environment.

The spectral envelope of the environment is how the frequencies that

are emphasized and de-emphasized by the environment (spectrum) vary

in loudness level over the duration of the sound of the environment. The

spectral envelope and spectrum portions of the graph are coordinated to

present different activity of the same sound components (as with sound

quality evaluation).

nominal level is used as a reference for plotting the dynamic contours

of the spectral components. The nominal level will vary in loudness/ampli-

tude over the sound’s duration. The nominal level

is the dynamic envelope

of the environment, where the sound source’s frequency components are

unaltered. The dynamic envelope of the environment changes over time.

It is the dynamic contour that is outlined by the reﬂ ections envelope. This

dynamic envelope is represented as a ﬁ xed, steady-state level on the spec-

tral envelope portion of the environmental characteristics graph.

The nominal level is placed at the dynamic level precisely between mezzo

forte and mezzo piano. Frequencies or pitch areas that are emphasized by

the environment will be plotted as activity above the nominal level. Fre-

quencies or pitch areas that are de-emphasized by the environment will be

plotted as activity below the nominal level.

An exercise to help develop skill in hearing environmental characteristics

spectrum and spectral envelope appears at the end of this chapter. In a

similar way to the reﬂ ections and reverberation exercise, this exercise

will increase the listener’s ability to recognize these important aspects of

environmental characteristics. Undertaking the detailed task of creating an

environmental characteristics graph is not necessary to

develop the skills needed to describe the spectrum and

spectral envelope of an environment. This exercise will,

however, aid the listener in developing the skills to make

such observations accurately and with as much detail as

the audio professional’s position requires.

Listen . . .

to tracks 41, 44, 45, 45 and 47

for individual sounds and entire

mixes with strong environmental

characteristics.

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

201

Environmental Characteristics Graph

The environmental characteristics graph allows for a detailed evaluation of

the reﬂ ection envelope, the spectrum and the spectral envelope (see Figure

9-13). Creating environmental characteristics graphs will greatly assist in

understanding the nuance of any environment. When created with much

detail, this graph requires great skill that will be acquired over an extended

period of practice and patience. Using this graph for general observations

and beginning studies will also prove very helpful to the beginner and audio

professional alike. Observations can be recorded for future reference and

to assist in learning, understanding, and recognizing this artistic element.

The environmental characteristics graph incorporates:

1. Three tiers as the

Y-axis: reﬂ ections (a continuum of dynamic level),

spectrum (a continuum of pitch level), and spectral envelope (a con-

tinuum of dynamic level);

2. The reﬂ ections portion of the graph, comprising a vertical line at each

point in time that a reﬂ ection occurs. The height of the vertical line cor-

responds to the amplitude of the reﬂ ection. The dynamic level of the

direct sound is indicated on the vertical axis and serves as a reference

for calculating the dynamic levels of the reﬂ ections. This portion of

the graph presents information on the dynamic contour of the reﬂ ec-

tions of the environment and the spacings, in time, of the reﬂ ections

throughout the sound of the environment;

3. The spectrum portion of the graph, comprising the registers estab-

lished in Chapter 6. Spectral components are placed against the

Y-axis

by pitch/frequency level. A single line is plotted against the two axes

for each spectral component, and it will occupy a large, colored/shaded

area in the case of pitch area and a narrow line in the case of a speciﬁ c

frequency;

4. The spectral envelope portion of the graph, which depicts the dynam-

ic contours of the spectral components, using dynamic areas as the

Y-axis;

5. The

X-axis of the graph, a time line divided into an appropriate time

increment (usually needing to allow millisecond increments to be

observed) to clearly display the smallest change of a duration, dynam-

ics, or pitch present in the characteristics of the environment; and

6. A key that is required to clearly relate the components of the spectrum

and spectral-envelope tiers of the graph.

The perspective of the environmental characteristics graph will always

be of either the individual sound source or of the perceived performance

environment.

It is not always possible to compile a detailed evaluation of environmental

characteristics. The information of the environment is often concealed by

other sounds in the musical texture. Further, it is not easily separated from

Chapter 9

202

the sound quality of the sound source itself. The ability to recognize envi-

ronmental characteristics involves much focused attention and practice. It

relies (1) on a knowledge of many sound sources, (2) on an ability to evalu-

ate sound quality of the sound source within the host environment, and (3)

on an acquired skill for comparing and contrasting a previous knowledge

of the sound source with the appearance of the sound source within the

environment that is to be deﬁ ned.

Using the graph for general evaluations of environmental characteris-

tics is often the most feasible approach. This approach will not require as

advanced a skill level as a detailed graph and will provide a good amount

of signiﬁ cant information. These general evaluations are acceptable for

most applications. They provide pertinent information quickly, but without

the subtle details that are difﬁ cult and time intensive to identify.

General evaluations of environmental characteristics will include (1)

the contour and beginning level of the reverb, (2) the level of the direct

sound, and (3) the most prominent frequencies or frequency bands that

are emphasized or attenuated. If possible, and after practice, they should

include a general description of the spectral envelope and an indication of

the content of the early time ﬁ eld.

The complexity of environmental characteristics can vary widely. Certain

environments will have very few spectral differences from the original sound

source. Some environments will have no reﬂ ections present between the

early time ﬁ eld and the reverberant energy, and the reverberant energy will

increase in density through a simple, additive process. Other environments

may be quite sophisticated in the way they were created, with time incre-

ments of the early time ﬁ eld precisely calculated at different time inter-

vals, with spectral components precisely tuned in patterns of frequencies

(designed to complement the sound source), and with spectral envelope

characteristics reacting accordingly. Natural environments and those that

are created can be remarkably similar or different in character.

It is possible for all perceived environmental characteristics to be changed

in real time, with our current technology. It is also possible for the per-

ceived environment of a sound source to be generated solely by a delay

unit, by a simple reverberation unit, or by any similar process that would

provide easily calculated cues. Although these environments would not be

perceived as natural spaces, the listener would proceed to imagine an envi-

ronment created by the impressions of those simple characteristics. The

listener simply will not perceive a sound as being void of environmental

characteristics. If no environment is present, it will be imagined.

Figure 9-14 presents an environmental characteristics evaluation of McCart-

ney’s vocal from the opening of “Hey Jude.” The graph shows several alter-

ations of spectrum and spectral envelope, and the environment’s subtle

time elements. The sparse texture during the beginning of the song allows

the characteristics of all environments to be perceived quite clearly.

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

203

Figure 9-14

Environ-

mental characteristics

graph of Paul McCart-

ney’s lead vocal in The

Beatles’ “Hey Jude.”

Nominal

Level

msec

Spectral

Envelope

Spectrum Reflections

Direct

Sound

020406080

Exercise 9-5 at the end of this chapter provides guidance in learning to evalu-

ate environmental characteristics. The reader will gain much from attempting

this exercise on several different sounds from several different recordings.

Space within Space

The overall environment of the program provides a setting within which

the subordinate environments of the individual sound sources will appear

to exist. This overall environment (or perceived performance environment)

is a constant that equally inﬂ uences the individual environments of all

sound sources. The perceived performance environment becomes part of

the overall character of the recording/piece of music.

The overall environment is either (1) perceived by the listener as being a

composite of the dominant, predominant, and/or common characteristics

of the individual environments of the sound sources, or (2) is a set of envi-

ronmental characteristics that is superimposed on the entire program.

Works will be perceived to have a single overall environment that is pres-

ent throughout the piece. The listener will imagine a single space (the per-

ceived performance environment) in which the performance (recording)

occurs. When this overall environment is created by adding environmental

characteristics to the entire musical texture, it is possible for the overall

environment to change during the course of a work. In such instances,

abrupt changes (usually at a major division of the form of a piece, such as

between verse and chorus) are most common. The various environments

Chapter 9

204

will be perceived as having occurred within a single overall environment,

even if a single environment is not present.

The perceived performance environment may be a composite of many per-

ceived environments and environmental cues. The listener will perceive the

overall performance environment in this way, if an overall environment has

not been applied. In these instances, the perceived performance environ-

ment is envisioned by the listener as a result of environmental character-

istics (1) that are common or complementary between the environments

of the individual sound sources, (2) that are prominent characteristics of

the environments of prominent sound sources (a source that presents

the most important musical materials, or the loudest, nearest, or furthest

sound sources, as examples), and/or (3) that are created by environmental

characteristics found in both of these areas.

Within this overall environment, the individual environments of sound

sources are perceived to exist. This is the illusion of space within space.

If reverberation has been applied to the overall program to create a per-

ceived performance environment, all of the recording’s sound sources and

their host environments will be altered by those sound characteristics.

Figure 9-15

Perceived

performance environ-

ment of The Beatles’

“Hey Jude.”

Nominal

Level

Spectral

Envelope

Spectrum Reflections

Direct

Sound

msec

0 40 80 120 160 200 300 400 500

Figure 9-15 is the perceived performance environment of The Beatles’ “Hey

Jude.” The lead vocal, with its fused environmental characteristics of Fig-

ure 9-14, appears contained within this overall environment of the record-

ing/performance. This space-within-space illusion is convincing in bringing

the listener to accept the small space of the lead vocal contained within

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

205

a midsized, natural-sounding performance space (perceived performance

environment).

A complete space-within-space evaluation will include the environmen-

tal characteristics of all sound sources and the perceived performance

environment. Relationships between the environments and the perceived

performance environment can then be understood and evaluated, among

other possible observations. This complete evaluation might not be under-

taken often, but this type of attention is often a level of focus in the master-

ing process and the ﬁ nal mixdown. The skill to compare environments also

leads to an understanding of how environments can be used to enhance

sound sources and the recording in complementary ways.

Distance location and environmental characteristics are related. The inter-

relationships of distance location and space within space should always be

considered when evaluating a music production. They work in a comple-

mentary way to give depth to the sound stage. The two are closely interac-

tive, and comparing the two will offer the listener many insights into the

creative ideas of the recording.

Figure 9-16

Environ-

mental characteristics

evaluation of the ﬁ rst

appearance of the

piano in The Beatles’

“Hey Jude.”

Nominal

Level

msec

Spectral

Envelope

Spectrum Reflections

Direct

Sound

0 40 80 120 160 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Additional environments from The Beatles’ recording “Hey Jude” are pre-

sented in Figures 9-16, 9-17, and 9-18. The graphs allow us to recognize the

very different decay times of the three environments. When comparing the

graphs to Figures 9-14 and 9-15, we can also recognize the uniqueness of

all four host environments and their perceived performance environment.

It is interesting to note that the high and very high areas are attenuated

Chapter 9

206

(in different bands) in the guitar and piano environments, and the spectral

alterations of the tambourine environment are very subtle. The reﬂ ections

are sparse in their spacing, to varying degrees, and fairly regular reﬂ ec-

tions occur in all three environments.

Figure 9-17

Environ-

mental characteristics

evaluation of the ﬁ rst

appearance of the

guitar in The Beatles’

“Hey Jude.”

Nominal

Level

Spectral

Envelope

Spectrum Reflections

Direct

Sound

msec

0 40 80 120 160 200 300 400

Figure 9-18

Environ-

mental characteristics

evaluation of the ﬁ rst

appearance of the

tambourine in The

Beatles’ “Hey Jude.”

Nominal

Level

Spectral

Envelope

Spectrum Reflections

ppp

Direct

Sound

msec

0 40 80 120 160 200 300

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

207

Surround Sound

As noted before, surround recording is in its infancy. While we have some

well-conceived recordings on the market, we will surely see profound

developments in how surround sound is used to deliver and enhance

music. Recording practice is still being deﬁ ned; ways that surround loca-

tions can be used to mix music are still being discovered as a result of

ongoing experimentation.

This section will present a way to document and evaluate the directional

location information of surround recordings. It is expected that the ways the

audio professional will need to evaluate surround recordings will change to

reﬂ ect developments in production practice. How we document and evalu-

ate surround will need to be adapted to reﬂ ect future developments.

Format Considerations

Much debate and deliberation has occurred regarding surround formats.

Many different channel and loudspeaker combinations and placements

have been proposed for surround, too many to accurately count let alone

cover here. These include formats from four channels to seven or eight,

most with subwoofers, and some with bipolar surround speakers. Some

formats have all speakers at ear level, others have the surround speakers

higher, and one format uses a wonderfully effective sixth overhead chan-

nel (providing subtle but convincing ambience and some impressive verti-

cal cues). While there was once much debate about which format would

become the standard, the ﬁ ve-channel system with a subwoofer for low-

frequency effects has emerged from this fray of formats.

Widespread consumer adoption of the 5.1 cinema format has led to its

adoption for music as well. Using the speciﬁ cations of the International

Telecommunications Union (ITU) Recommendation 775 (see Figure 9-19),

the format has proven stable, and was created after a great deal of thought

and experimentation. Further, it can accomplish almost all of what is rea-

sonable to expect of surround (albeit with the sad loss of the overhead

channel). While the wide spread angle of the surround speakers make rear

phantom imaging unstable and can quickly pull images forward, the equi-

distant placement of all ﬁ ve speakers have advantages for dynamic bal-

ance and time-based considerations, and provide convincing ambience.

Another positive aspect of this format is that it is compatible with current two-

channel playback concerns. The 60° angle between the left and right speak-

ers provides for accurate listening to stereo recordings (see Figure 9-20). It

is the recommended listening relationship for accurate stereo reproduction

and can therefore also be used for evaluating two-channel recordings.

Chapter 9

208

Figure 9-19

ITU-

recommended

speaker layout for

surround sound.

Represent equal distances from listener

L R

Ls Rs

-30º +30º

Sub

placed for

best response

Figure 9-20

Two-chan-

nel sound reproduc-

tion with surround-

sound loudspeaker

placement.

L R

Ls Rs

60º 60º

60º

This format in the ITU speciﬁ cation (also deﬁ ned by the Audio Engineering

Society) was used in making the evaluations of surround recordings that

appear in this book.

The audio industry will surely see profound developments in how sur-

round sound is used to deliver and enhance music. Use of surround sound

in music production is still being deﬁ ned. Here we will look at the sound-

stage dimensions of location and distance, and at environmental character-

istics in terms of their potential and current use. We have no certain way to

predict how artistic expression will bring surround production into matu-

rity and can only examine what is currently before us.

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

209

Evaluating Location in Surround Sound

Sound location is evaluated in surround to identify the location and size of the

phantom images of sound sources. These cues hold signiﬁ cant information

for many surround productions, and may contribute signiﬁ cantly to shap-

ing the musical ideas themselves. These are the cues that separate surround

recordings from two-channel (stereo) recordings. Phantom images may

change locations or size at any time during a piece of music. These changes

may be sudden or they can be gradual, and may be prominent or subtle.

Figure 9-21

Surround

sound location graph.

[RC]

The

surround sound location graph will allow the reader to plot the loca-

tions of all sound sources against the time line of the work. The graph can

portray any lateral direction of sources from the listener and the size of the

phantom images, 360° around the listener.

“Left,” “right,” “center,” “left surround,” “right surround,” and “rear center”

locations are identiﬁ ed on the graph. The sound source’s location is rep-

resented by placing a mark on the graph at the location of the phantom

image. The angle of the sound source from the listener can be determined

from the centerline out 180° up or down, and degree-increments of angle

may or may not be incorporated into the graph, as desired. The rear-center

location is placed at the very top and at the very bottom of the graph. This

allows sound movement and spread images across the rear sound ﬁ eld

to be graphed, although sometimes not as clearly as we might wish. As

Figure 9-22 shows, the movement of sound sources across the rear and

the locations of spread images would move off the top and bottom of the

graph to wrap the source to the other rear-center location.

Chapter 9

210

Figure 9-22

Rear-

center sound source

movement and

spread images on sur-

round location graph.

The surround sound location graph incorporates:

1. “Left,” “right,” “center,” “left surround,” “right surround,” and “rear cen-

ter” as the

Y-axis;

2. The X-axis of the graph, dedicated to a time line that is devised to fol-

low an appropriate increment of the metric grid or is representative of

a major section of the piece (or the entire piece) for sound sources that

do not change locations;

3. A single line plotted against the two axes for each sound source and

occupying a large, colored/shaded area in the case of the spread image;

and

4. A key that is required to clearly relate the sound sources to the graph.

The key should be consistent with keys used for other similar analyses

(such as musical balance and performance intensity) to allow different

analyses to be easily compared.

A sound source may occupy a speciﬁ c point in the horizontal plane of the

sound stage, or it may occupy an area within the sound stage, as was ear-

lier found in stereo sound location. Similarly, the surround location graph

will dedicate a source line to each source against a common timeline. Point

sources and spread images will be graphed in the same way as on the

stereo location graph.

A surround mix might have a secondary sound stage behind the listener

to augment the front sound stage, and have little activity at the direct sides

of the listener. This is found in a number of surround mixes. In such a case,

Time

[RC]

single spread image

KEY

point source

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

211

the Y-axis presented in Figure 9-23 would more clearly show the content

of that mix. Note the listener’s heads are present to help the reader orient

him or herself to the graph; they would not appear on a graph of a mix.

The location of the secondary sound stage might take some getting used

to, but in time will make considerable sense; a clear stereo sound stage

can be seen in front and behind the listener location. The sounds at the

side will be cumbersome to plot; Figure 9-24 shows a spread image at the

right side and a point source moving from the left front to the left rear to

demonstrate how such sounds would appear. It must be noted this format

might not be the best choice if many sounds of this type were present, but

in recordings that emphasize the front sound stage and create a rear sound

stage, this

Y-axis would more clearly show the sound stage than the format

of Figure 9-21.

Figure 9-23

Alterna-

tive Y-axis for the

surround sound

location graph.

single spread

image

KEY

point source

Time

Chapter 9

212

Locations and image size do not often change within sections of a song/

piece of music. Changes are most likely to occur between sections of a

piece, or at repetitions of ideas or sections. These are places where changes

in the mix often make the best musical sense and most often occur. The

listener should, however, never assume changes did not occur. Gradual

changes in source locations and size are present in many pieces, and some-

times in pieces where such events are not expected.

Figure 9-24

Surround

sound imaging of a

hypothetical mix.

KEY

Lead Vocal Lead Vocal Ambiance

Bell 1 Bell 2 Bell 3 Bell 4 Ambiance of all Bells

Keyboard Acoustic Guitar Bass

point source location

When sound sources do not change locations in a section, a stationary

graph without a time line can appropriately be used. Figure 9-24 presents a

surround location image that can be used to notate the locations of sound

sources in such instances. Sizes of images and placements are clearly

shown. It is also possible for the listener to sketch the sound stage—the

area where the performance appears to emanate. This allows the listener to

recognize when the surround speakers are being used for ambience only.

This ﬁ gure also has the advantage of allowing the listener to notate second-

ary sound-source phantom images created by nonadjacent pairs of loud-

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

213

speakers and by groups of speakers. These images cannot be incorporated

into the surround sound location graphs described above. The graph can

also show separations between a sound-source phantom image and its

ambiance (environmental characteristics) found in many surround produc-

tions. It can also show image location areas, containing breadth and depth.

These can envelop the listener or surround the listener.

Figure 9-24 depicts the surround imaging of a hypothetical mix containing

a number of sources separated from their environmental cues.

Figure 9-25

Surround

sound location graph

of “Money for Noth-

ing” by Dire Straits.

Dire Straits “Money for Nothing” Surround Location

(RC)

:02

:10

:17

11 13

:24

15 17

:31

Vocal

Arpeggio Synth

Soprano Sax

Synth Bass

KEY

:38

23 25

:45

27 29

:53

31 33

1:00

35 37

1:07

39 40

1:14

(RC)

Figure 9-25 presents the surround-sound locations of a number of sounds

from the introduction to “Money for Nothing” by Dire Straits. The graph

clearly shows an arpeggiated synthesizer sound revolving around the lis-

tener; the sound rotates around the room four times, between 0:15 and

1:15. The vocal line and the soprano saxophone part provide important

Chapter 9

214

front-center sources that vary in size and have a small amount of motion,

and a synthesized bass part creates a stable rear-center image.

Figure 9-26 presents the synthesized strings sound from the same section. The

sound extends the sound stage to surround the listener with a slight sense of

envelopment, ﬁ lling the left front through left rear of the sound stage.

The reader should try to identify the remaining two sounds that perform

in this section and place them on one of these two graphs. Next, graph the

following section (the second half of the introduction) and the beginning of

the ﬁ rst verse. You will notice when the drums enter at 1:12 the front sound

stage becomes active and widens; this is reinforced as the electric guitar

enters quietly at 1:26. The solo guitar at 1:36 and the entrance of the lead

vocal (2:04) cause additional shifts in the sound stage and the perspec-

tive of the listener. Identifying these characteristics will assist the reader in

understanding the mix.

Figure 9-26

Surround

sound imaging of the

synthesized strings

sound during the in-

troduction of “Money

for Nothing” by Dire

Straits.

KEY

Synth Strings Synth Strings + Ambiance

The reader should work through the Surround Sound Location Exercise at

the end of this chapter to reﬁ ne their skill in localizing sources in surround

playback. The exercise should be performed on different pieces of music,

and should use the two Surround Sound Location Graph formats and the

Surround Sound Imaging ﬁ gure.

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

215

Exercises

Exercise 9-1

Stereo Location Exercise

Find a work that displays signiﬁ cant changes in stereo location of sound

sources. Plot the location of the sound source that displays the greatest

amount of change, and at least one spread image and one point source. Do

this throughout the ﬁ rst two major sections of the piece.

The process of determining stereo-sound location will follow this sequence:

1. During the initial hearing(s), listen to the example to establish the length

of the time line. At the same time, notice the presence of prominent

instrumentation, with placements and activity of their stereo location,

against the time line.

2. Check the time line for accuracy and make any alterations. Establish the

sound sources (instruments and voices) that will be evaluated and sketch

the presence of the sound sources against the completed time line.

3. Notice the locations and size of the sound sources for boundaries of

size, location, and any speed of changing locations or size of image. The

boundaries of source locations will establish the smallest increment of

the Y-axis required. The perspective of the graph will always be of either

the individual sound source or of the overall sound stage.

4. Begin plotting the stereo location of the selected sound sources on the

graph. The locations of spread images are placed within boundaries; the

boundaries may be difﬁ cult to locate during initial hearings, but they can

be deﬁ ned with precision; the listener should continue to focus on the

source until it is deﬁ ned. The locations of point-source images are plotted

as single lines. These sources are often easiest to precisely locate and are

the sources most likely to change locations in real time.

5. Continually compare the locations and sizes of the sound sources to one

another. This will aid in deﬁ ning the source locations and will keep the

listener focused on the spatial relationships of the various sound sources.

The evaluation is complete when the smallest signiﬁ cant detail has been

incorporated into the graph.

As you gain experience in making these evaluations, songs with more

instruments should be examined and longer sections of the works should be

evaluated.

Chapter 9

216

Exercise 9-2

Distance Location Exercise

Select a recording with at least ﬁ ve sound sources that exhibit signiﬁ cantly dif-

ferent distance cues. Plot the distance locations of those sources throughout

the ﬁ rst three major sections of the work.

The process of determining distance location will follow this sequence:

1. During the initial hearing(s), establish the length of the time line. Notice

the selected sound sources and any prominent placements and activity of

distance location, especially as they relate to the time line.

2. Check the time line for accuracy and make any alterations. Clearly identify

the sound sources (instruments and voices), and sketch the presence of

the sound sources against the completed time line.

3. Make initial evaluations of distance locations. Notice the locations of the

sound sources to establish boundaries of the sound stage (the location

of the front and rear of the sound stage). Notice any changing distance

locations and calculate any speed of changing locations. The placement

of instruments against the time line, more than the boundary of speed of

changing location (which are quite rarely used), will most often establish

the smallest time unit required in the graph to accurately show the small-

est signiﬁ cant change of location. The amount of activity in each area

will establish the amount of Y-axis space required. The perspective of the

graph will always be of either the individual sound source or the overall

sound stage.

4. Begin plotting the distance of the selected sound sources. Sound sources

will be placed on the graph by (1) evaluating the timbre deﬁ nition of

each sound source by focusing on the amount of detail present, while

being aware of the amount and characteristics of the reverberant sound;

(2) transferring this evaluation into a distance of the source from the

listening location and penciling in the sound on the distance location

continuum for reference; (3) reconsidering the deﬁ nition of the timbre (is

the source in the listener’s own space, or proximity? Is it near or far?), and

then placing the sound in relation to the sound stage; (4) precisely locat-

ing the distance location of the sound source by comparing the sound

source’s location to the locations of other sound sources.

5. Once several sounds are accurately placed on the distance continuum,

identifying additional distance locations is most readily accomplished by

directly comparing the sound source to the perceived distance locations

of the other sound sources present in the music. Use proportions of dif-

ferences between the locations of three or more sound source distances

to make for more meaningful comparisons. Is sound “c” twice or one-half

the distance from sound “a,” as “a” is from sound “b?” How does this

compare to the relationship of sounds “d” and “c?” Sounds “c” and “b?”

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

217

Continually compare the distance locations of the sound sources to one

another. The evaluation is complete when the smallest signiﬁ cant detail

has been incorporated into the graph.

Remain focused on the distance location of the sound sources, making cer-

tain your attention is not drawn to other aspects of sound.

As you gain experience in making these evaluations, you should examine songs

with more instruments and evaluate longer sections of the works.

Exercise 9-3

Reﬂ ections and Reverberation Exercise

Find a snare drum sound that was recorded without environmental cues, such

as Track 23 on the enclosed CD. The sound will need to be repeated many

times, over a period of 10 or more minutes; place the track on repeat play if

possible. Route the sound through an appropriate reverb unit.

1. Make the reverb unit emphasize the items listed below one at a time, and

make radical (perhaps unmusical) settings of these parameters to learn

their characteristic sound qualities. Listen carefully to individual snare

drum hits while adjusting the device.

2. Seek to create a pronounced early time ﬁ eld from the unit. Establish

a clear set of two reﬂ ections and create a setting that will repeat this

pattern. A recurring pattern of reﬂ ections is the result. Listen carefully,

and alter the speed of the reﬂ ections and spacings of the reﬂ ections and

patterns.

3. Repeat this sequence with a clear set of 3, 4, and then 5 reﬂ ections, es-

tablishing recurring patterns while gradually increasing the number of re-

ﬂ ections and the complexity of the pattern. Listen carefully to create and

recognize:

a. Patterns of reﬂ ections created by dynamics

b. Patterns of reﬂ ections created by spacings in time

c. Spacing of reﬂ ections in the early time ﬁ eld

d. Dynamic contour of the entire reﬂ ections portion

e. Density (number and spacings of reﬂ ections) of reverberant sound

f. Dynamic relationships between the direct sound, individual reﬂ ec-

tions (of the early time ﬁ eld), and the reverberant sound

g. Dynamic contour shapes within the reverberant sound

You will begin to notice and recognize that certain spacings in time have a

certain consistent and unique sound quality. A “sound of time” can be under-

stood and recognized for delay times and reverberation rates. With patience

and practice, this skill can become highly reﬁ ned—as many room designers

will attest.

Chapter 9

218

Exercise 9-4

Environmental Characteristics Spectrum and Spectral Envelope Exercise

Find a high-quality acoustic instrument sound and loop it in a DAW or

otherwise where it can be controlled. Route the sound through an appropri-

ate reverb unit.

1. Establish a reverb setting with three or more seconds of decay and with a

high proportion of reverb signal (or only reverb signal).

2. Alter the frequency response, equalization, or any similar frequency-

processing control on the reverb to emphasize and de-emphasize (attenu-

ate) several speciﬁ c frequencies or frequency bands.

3. Play single pitches with short durations on the keyboard. Listen carefully

to how changes of settings alter the sound quality of the instrument. Keep

track of the settings played. Repeat this process while moving through the

entire frequency range(s) the unit will alter and listening (and learning)

carefully.

4. In a separate process, listen carefully to pitches played throughout the

instrument’s range, played through an unchanging reverb setting. Notice

how the qualities of some pitches are altered differently than others.

Changes in the environment’s spectrum and spectral envelope will occur

only if the particular pitches performed have spectral energy at the fre-

quencies being altered.

Repeat this process again several hours, then several days later. During these ses-

sions try to anticipate what the modiﬁ cation will sound like before you listen to

it. Check your memory and your recognition of many different spectrum chang-

es. Keep returning to this exercise to become comfortable with the material.

Exercise 9-5

Environmental Characteristics Exercise

Return to the work or works evaluated in the distance location exercise. Care-

fully select three of the ﬁ ve sound sources previously evaluated for distance

and perform environmental characteristics evaluations on those sounds as

outlined below.

As an alternative, look for a suitable surround sound recording with few

sound sources. Identify three to ﬁ ve sources that have separate locations for

their direct sound and environmental characteristics. This will greatly assist

you in comparing the direct sound and the environment, and in isolating

environmental characteristics.

While these evaluations are most easily accomplished for short-duration per-

cussive sounds, environmental characteristics evaluation is possible for any

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

219

sound source as long as the reverberant energy of the environment is exposed

(not accompanied by or masked by other sound sources) after the sound

source has ceased sounding.

The process of determining environmental characteristics will follow this

sequence:

1. During initial hearings of the entire work, listen to each sound source to

identify a location where the sound is isolated throughout the duration of

the environment. Nearly always the graph’s time increments on the time

line will need to show milliseconds. Estimate the length of the time line

for that presentation of each sound source.

2. Check the time line for accuracy and make any alterations. Work in a

detailed manner to establish a complete evaluation of the reﬂ ections of

the sound. First, sketch the presence of the most prominent reﬂ ections

against the completed time line; then, establish the precise time place-

ment and the dynamic levels of these prominent reﬂ ections against the

time line. Use the prominent reﬂ ections as references to ﬁ ll in the remain-

ing reﬂ ections in the early time ﬁ eld. After the early time ﬁ eld is plotted,

complete the reﬂ ections portion of the graph by plotting the dynamic

envelope and spacing of reﬂ ections (density) of the reverberant energy.

3. Notice the locations and size of any emphasized or de-emphasized pitch

areas or frequencies. Scan the entire piece of music, listening to how the

sound source is altered by the environmental characteristics by listening

to many different pitch levels. Throughout these hearings, keep track of

pitch areas or speciﬁ c frequencies that appear to be emphasized or de-

emphasized. With a running list of observations, regularly identiﬁ ed pitch

areas/frequencies will begin to emerge. Further hearings will allow you to

more accurately identify these frequencies and pitch areas (that make up

the spectrum of the environmental characteristics), and to place the pres-

ence of these frequencies or pitch areas against the time line.

4. You will now plot the dynamic contours of the components of the spec-

trum against the time line. This process is the same as the process of plot-

ting the spectral envelope of sound quality evaluations. Each component

of the spectrum is plotted as a single line, and these components are

listed in a key, so their dynamic contours may be related to the spectral-

envelope tier of the graph.

5. Continually compare the dynamic levels and contours of the spectral

components to one another. This will aid in remembering the nominal

dynamic level (where the amplitude of the spectral components of the

sound source are unaltered by the environment), will aid in keeping the

dynamic levels and contours consistent between spectral components,

and will keep you focused on the relationships of the sound source and

its host environment. The evaluation is complete when the smallest sig-

niﬁ cant detail has been incorporated into each tier of the graph.

This evaluation can be detailed and time intensive. It is not proposed that

these detailed evaluations be undertaken in normal, daily activities of audio

Chapter 9

220

professionals. As a learning tool, this study will be very successful at bringing

you to hear, understand, recognize, and remember these important aspects

of sound. You are encouraged to return to this exercise. Once speed and ac-

curacy improve, you should undertake evaluations of more complex environ-

ments and sounds that are partially masked.

Exercise 9-6

Exercise in Determining the Environmental Characteristics of the Perceived Performance

Environment

This exercise will seek to deﬁ ne the environmental characteristics of a record-

ing’s perceived performance environment. A multitrack recording should be

selected that contains no more than three or four sound sources, a sound

stage that clearly separates the images, and an overall sound that appears to

envelop the sound stage.

1. Identify the sound sources and the different environments of the piece.

2. Perform general environmental characteristics evaluations of the envi-

ronments. These initial evaluations should be general in nature, seeking

prominent characteristics rather than detail.

3. Compare the environments for similarities of time, amplitude, and fre-

quency information to identify common traits between the individual en-

vironments. (1) When traits are common to all sounds, an applied, over-

all environment is present. The traits will be present in all environments

equally. If the common traits are not applied to all sources equally, a

single environment has not been applied to the entire program. (2) Then

you must look at other factors as well. Next, identify the predominant

traits of the environments of musically signiﬁ cant sound sources. They

also directly contribute to the characteristics of the overall environment.

4. Listen to the work again to identify an overall environment of the pro-

gram. An applied overall environment will be most easily detected by its

detail in spectral changes of the reverberant sound, and in the clarity of

the initial reﬂ ections of the early time ﬁ eld. The characteristics of these

environments will be perceived by listening for detail at a close perspective

of slight changes to the predominant characteristics of the environment.

Overall environments that are an illusion (created by the composite and

predominant characteristics of the individual sound sources) will have

characteristics that are not readily apparent. The characteristics of these

environments will be perceived by listening at the more distant and gen-

eral perspective of the dominant characteristics of the environment.

5. Compile a detailed environmental characteristics evaluation of the per-

ceived performance environment. The evaluation is complete when the

smallest signiﬁ cant detail has been incorporated into each tier of the

graph.

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

221

Repeat this exercise on other recordings until you have evaluated a recording

with an applied overall environment and a recording with a perceived perfor-

mance environment that is the perceived result of the environmental charac-

teristics of the individual sound sources.

Once skill and conﬁ dence are improving, repeat this exercise on recordings

that have more activity and with less pronounced characteristics in the per-

ceived performance environment.

Exercise 9-7

Space Within Space Exercise

Select a multitrack recording containing a small number (ﬁ ve or six) sound

sources. A recording with a sparse texture (few instruments sounding simulta-

neously) and pronounced environments on the individual sound sources will

be easiest to evaluate during initial studies.

The process for determining space within space follows this sequence:

1. Identify the various environments of the piece. Some sound sources may

share environments with other sound sources (at the same or different

distances), and some sources may change environments several times in

the piece.

2. Perform general environmental characteristics evaluations of the envi-

ronments. These initial evaluations should be general in nature, seeking

prominent characteristics rather than detail.

3. Compare the environments for similarities of time, amplitude, and fre-

quency information. This observation will determine common traits be-

tween the individual environments of the sources. These common traits

will signal a possible applied, overall environment if they are present in all

environments equally. If the common traits are not applied to all sources

equally, other factors are in play as well. Identify the predominant traits

of the environments of musically signiﬁ cant sound sources. They also

directly contribute to the characteristics of the overall environment.

4. Listen to the work again to identify the characteristics of the overall

environment of the program (the perceived performance environment).

Compile a detailed environmental characteristics evaluation of the

perceived performance environment.

5. Begin the master listing of environments with this environmental charac-

teristics evaluation of the perceived performance environment.

6. Perform detailed environmental characteristics evaluations of the indi-

vidual host environments of each sound source. The characteristics of

the overall environment may or may not be present in these evaluations,

depending on the nature of the overall environment and the nature of the

individual sound sources’ environments. The evaluation of each source is

Chapter 9

222

complete when the smallest signiﬁ cant detail has been incorporated into

each tier of the graph.

7. Number each environment and enter the evaluation into the master listing

of environments. Note on the master listing the sound source or sources

that are present within the environment.

Once skill and conﬁ dence are improving, repeat this exercise on more sound

sources in recordings that have more activity and with less pronounced envi-

ronmental characteristics.

Exercises 9-8

Surround Sound Location Exercises

Two approaches can be used for surround sound location (A and B). You

should work through both approaches, as one will be more suitable to any

sound material than the other. Determining which approach is most suitable

will be a valuable undertaking in itself.

Exercise 9-8A

Find a surround recording with sources located around the array, but listen-

ing at the audience perspective. Perform an evaluation of the locations of four

or ﬁ ve sources for the ﬁ rst two major sections of the work.

The process of determining surround sound location will follow this

sequence:

1. During the initial hearing(s), listen to the example to establish the length

of the time line. At the same time, notice the presence of prominent

instrumentation, with placements and activity of their surround location,

against the time line.

2. Check the time line for accuracy and make any alterations. Establish a

complete list of sound sources (instruments and voices), and sketch the

presence of the sound sources against the completed time line.

3. Notice the locations and size of the sound sources (instruments and voic-

es) for boundaries of size, location, and any speed of changing locations

or size of image. The placement of instruments against the time line will

most often establish the smallest time unit required in the graph to accu-

rately exhibit the smallest signiﬁ cant change of location. The boundaries

of the sound sources’ locations will establish the smallest increment of

the

Y-axis required. The perspective of the graph will always be of either

the individual sound source or of the complete array.

4. Begin plotting the surround location of each source on the graph. The

locations of spread images are placed within boundaries. The boundaries

Evaluating the Spatial Elements of Reproduced Sound

223

may be difﬁ cult to locate during initial hearings, but they can be deﬁ ned

with precision. Continue to focus on the source until it is deﬁ ned. The

locations of point-source images are plotted as single lines. These sources

are easiest to precisely locate and are most likely to change locations in

real time.

5. Continually compare the locations and sizes of the sound sources to

one another. This will aid in deﬁ ning the source locations and will keep

you focused on the spatial relationships of the various sound sources.

The evaluation is complete when the smallest signiﬁ cant detail has been

incorporated into the graph.

Locating sound sources originating from behind normally causes a listener to

move their head. You should consciously keep your head still and focus on the

direction and size of the image.

Exercise 9-8B

This exercise should be repeated on other recordings. Find a recording with

the listener located within the ensemble or the performance.

When sound sources do not change locations or when sources appear to

envelop you, a stationary sound-location ﬁ gure will be substituted for the sur-

round location graph. Figure 14-2 will be used for these evaluations and will

also allow you to localize phantom images generated by nonadjacent pairs

of loudspeakers (as described in the chapter), and represents a ﬁ xed period

of time. Identify and graph several point sources and spread-image sound

sources in the song. A separate graph will be used whenever source size or

locations change. Graph several different sections of the work on separate

graphs to note and understand the characteristics and changes of imaging

that occur in the song.

224

10 Complete Evaluations and

Understanding Observations

The evaluations of artistic elements from previous chapters will be drawn

together and compared here. Observations will be made from examining

those evaluations and comparing the artistic elements to the musical

materials.

Our evaluations have primarily been on three different levels of perspective:

(1) the characteristics of an individual sound, (2) the relationships of individ-

ual sound sources, and (3) the overall musical texture, or overall program.

The highest level of perspective brings the listener to focus on the compos-

ite sound of a recording, or its overall texture. At this level, all sounds are

summed into a single impression. Much recreational listening occurs at this

level of perspective, with shifts of focus moving to text and melody—and

other aspects attractive to the listener, such as beat or pulse or the emotion

and message of the song—in a random manner and at undirected times.

The overall texture is very important for the recordist as well, as its dimen-

sions can profoundly shape the music/recording. These dimensions are the

piece of music/recording’s form, perceived performance environment, sound

stage, reference dynamic level, program dynamic contour, and its timbral

balance. The overall dimensions that provide the recording and music with

its unique character must be readily recognizable and understood by the

recordist, listening at the upper levels of perspective. All but one of these

dimensions, timbral balance, has been explored in previous chapters.

This chapter will examine relationships of the various dimensions of the

overall texture and explore timbral balance and pitch density. The informa-

tion offered by comparing evaluations of individual sources is explored next.

An examination of how the artistic elements shape a recording will lead to

a summary of the system for evaluating recorded/reproduced sound.

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

225

Pitch Density and Timbral Balance

The process of evaluating pitch density is directly related to pitch area anal-

ysis from Chapter 6. Pitch density is the amount and placement of pitch-

related information of a single sound source within the overall pitch range

of the musical texture. It is composed of the pitch area of the source’s musi-

cal materials fused with its sound quality (timbre).

Timbral balance is the

“spectrum” of the overall texture that is created by the combination of the

pitch densities of all of the sound sources in the music. The two are inter-

related, as each source’s frequency content contributes to create the overall

frequency content of the recording.

Pitch Density

The concept of pitch density allows each musical idea/sound source to be

perceived as having its own pitch “placement” or “location” in the musical

texture. The range of pitch that spans our hearing (and the musical texture)

can be conceived as a space. Within this space, sound sources might be

understood as being placed and/or layered according to the frequency/pitch

area they occupy. The overall pitch range can be perceived as being divided

into areas. Some of these areas will be occupied by the sound sources, or

left empty; some areas might contain much pitch/frequency material, some

little. The size of pitch areas and their placement are unique to each piece of

music. Further, they may remain stable throughout a song, or may change

at any time.

With this approach, the concepts of pitch density and timbral balance are

often applied to the processes of mixing musical ideas and sounds in

recording production. This is similar to the traditional concept of arranging

and orchestration, where instruments are selected and combined based

on their sound qualities, and the musical materials they are presenting.

The recording medium and its various formats provide new twists to this

traditional approach to combining sounds.

Pitch density is (1) the pitch area occupied by the musical material of the

sound source with (2) a density of pitch/frequency information provided by

the sound quality (timbre) of the sound source.

Musical materials create a single concept or pattern. The materials will

come together in our memory and perception, as a single idea comprised

of a group of pitches. The material will be heard to occupy a speciﬁ c pitch

area. The pitch area of the musical material is deﬁ ned by its boundaries—its

highest and lowest pitches. Within the boundaries a bandwidth of sorts is

established. The number of different pitch levels that comprise the musical

material and their spacing creates a density within the pitch area.

The sound quality/timbre of the sound source will also inﬂ uence the band-

width of the pitch area and the pitch density of the musical idea. The primary

Chapter 10

226

pitch area of the sound source’s spectrum will often be made up of the fun-

damental frequency of an instrument or voice, perhaps with the addition

of a few prominent lower partials. A primary pitch area might also contain

environment information (delayed and reverberated sound). These cues

may add density to the sound without introducing new pitch information.

Distortion sounds and other processing effects may also provide additional

spectral information and added density to the primary pitch area.

Often, the primary pitch area of the sound source is rather narrow, often

slightly more than the fundamental frequency alone. This is especially

true when an instrument or voice is being performed at a moderate to low

dynamic level. Strong secondary pitch areas in the sound-source timbre can

be present. These provide additional pitch information that will widen the

pitch area of the source (raising the upper boundary of the pitch area) and/or

that can add to its density. Formant regions will often add a consistency of

pitch-density information between a sound source’s pitch density events.

As the dynamic level of a sound source increases, lower partials will often

become more prominent, and the width of the pitch area will tend to widen.

In this way the spectrum of the sound source and its performance intensity

impact pitch area.

Using this information, the highest boundary of the pitch area is determined

by perceiving the spectrum of the sound source. The upper boundary of the

pitch area “bandwidth” will be located at the pitch/frequency level where

signiﬁ cant harmonics and overtones cease to be present. Typically there is

approximately a 3-to-1 loudness ratio between the lowest boundary of the

pitch area and the upper boundary.

The pitch area of each musical idea must be determined by (1) deﬁ ning the

length of the idea. It is then possible to deﬁ ne (2) the lowest boundary of the

pitch area, and (3) the highest boundary of the area. Once the bandwidth of

the pitch area has been established (4) the amount of spectral information

present can be observed, completing the concept of pitch density.

Most listeners can easily determine the length of the idea by simply ask-

ing, “When does this idea end, and when does the next idea performed by

this instrument/voice begin?” This usually takes place at the perspective of

the individual sound source. At times an instrument such as a piano may

present several musical ideas simultaneously, in which case each would

be understood and processed separately. At times, a group of instruments

such as a brass section may present a single musical idea and be heard as

a single unit; these would be grouped together.

Pitch information can be determined by examining the melodic activity

(and/or harmonic activity for instruments like guitar and keyboards) of the

musical idea to determine the shape and the highest and lowest pitch levels;

this will establish the lowest boundary of pitch density. Adding detail per-

taining to the sound qualities of the sources performing the idea provides

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

227

the upper boundary and density information. The boundaries of the pitch

areas of musical ideas may or may not change over time.

The pitch area of a sound source’s timbre as it presents a musical idea is

a composite impression that establishes a frequency band we call pitch

density. Pitch density contains all of the appearances of the sound source

performing all of the pitch material within the time period of the musical

idea. It is the sum of all of the pitch levels and the signiﬁ cant sound-qual-

ity information of its sound source(s). The relative density of the idea is

determined by the amount of pitch information generated by the musi-

cal idea and the spectral information of the sound source(s). As a song

unfolds, a source’s pitch area will change as it presents different musical

materials and/or changes timbre by differing performance intensity, loud-

ness, expression, etc. This gives the different pitch density events different

characters and characteristics that directly contribute to the music.

This process for determining pitch density is repeated for each individual

musical idea. All sounds can be plotted on a single graph to allow the over-

all texture to be observed. This graph will represent the timbral balance of

the recording/music.

Timbral Balance

Timbral balance is the combination of all of the pitch densities of all of the

recording’s sounds. It is a dimension of the overall texture that conceptu-

ally represents its “spectrum.” Timbral balance is the distribution and den-

sity of pitch/frequency information in the recording/music.

Evaluating timbral balance is a sound quality evaluation of the overall tex-

ture. Here the individual sound sources that make up the overall texture

can be conceived as individual spectral components. Individual sound

sources are analyzed for their contributions to the sound quality of the

overall program in terms of their timbres and the musical materials they

present (pitch density).

All sound sources are plotted on the timbral balance graph. The graph may

take two forms, with or without a time line. The graph may simply plot each

sound source’s pitch area against one another (as the pitch area graph, in

Chapter 6), and be a rather general representation of the overall texture.

Most helpful in beginning studies is when the sound sources are plotted

individually against the work’s time line, allowing the graph to visually rep-

resent changes in timbral balance as the work unfolds.

In either form, the timbral balance graph contains:

• Each sound source is represented by an individual box denoting its

pitch area,

Chapter 10

228

• The Y-axis is divided into the register designations ﬁ rst presented in

Chapter 6,

• The density of the pitch areas can be denoted on the graph through

shadings of the boxes of the sound sources or by other descriptions.

The pitch densities of all of the sound sources may be compared to one

another and to the overall pitch range of the musical texture. Timbral bal-

ance allows the pitch densities of all sound sources to be compared. Thus,

the recordist is better able to understand and control the frequency con-

tent of the recording by observing the contribution of the individual sound

source’s pitch material to the overall musical texture and of the mix.

The timbral balance of the beginning sections of The Beatles’ “Lucy in the

Sky with Diamonds” (1999

Yellow Submarine version) appears in Figure 10-1.

The work uses density and the registeral placement of sound sources and

musical ideas to add deﬁ nition to the musical materials and sections of the

music. Timbral balance itself helps create directed motion in the music. The

musical ideas are precisely placed in the texture, allowing for clarity of the

musical ideas. The expansion and contraction of bandwidth of the overall

pitch range and textural density of the musical ideas (and sound sources)

add an extra dimension to the work and support it for its musical ideas.

While dynamic levels of sources can impact perceived timbral balance,

dynamic-level information is not contained in the timbral balance graph.

Information on the dynamic levels of the sound sources can be found in

the musical balance graph, however. Viewed in this way, musical balance

conceptually represents the “spectral envelope” of the overall texture. By

comparing the two graphs, the reader can understand more about how the

recording made use of pitch and dynamic information to shape its overall

sound quality, or timbre.

Similarly, stereo location (or surround sound location) can impact perceived

timbral balance. Timbral balance is distributed across the sound stage. The

spectral information of the overall texture is balanced by location as well as

by the distribution of pitch/frequency information by register. Paying close

attention to this type of interaction allows us to recognize how a sound

source can emerge from the timbral balance of a mix by moving it to a

new location; sounds can be blended or given clarity by their placement in

location and by their spectral content. By comparing the timbral balance

graph to the stereo (or surround) location graph, we can recognize how the

spectrum of the recording is distributed by location.

Exercises for determining pitch density of a single source and for deter-

mining a recording’s timbral balance appear at the end of this chapter. The

reader is encouraged to spend enough time with each exercise to feel com-

fortable with these concepts that are so important to the mixing process.

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

229

1 3 5 7 9 1113 15171921232527293133353739 414345

Intro

Bridge

Chorus

AA B

1 Lowrey Organ

2 John 1

3 John 2

4 John 3

5Paul 1

6Tom

7Bass

8 Tamboura

9Gong

10 Guitar Acoustic

11 Guitar Melody

12 Guitar Bassline Chorus

13 Open Hi Hat

14 Hi Hat Closed

15 Kick

16 Ride w/Rivet

17 Snare

KEY

measures:

Verse 1

LOW L MID M HIGHOW-MID ID-UPPER

Figure 10-1

Timbral balance graph—The Beatles’ “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds” (1999 Yellow Submarine

version).

Chapter 10

230

The Overall Texture

The overall texture of the recording is perceived as an overall character,

made up of the states and activities of all sounds and musical ideas. Pitch-

erties are all potentially important factors in deﬁ ning an overall texture.

The characteristics of the overall texture provide many fundamental quali-

ties of the music and recording. These greatly shape the music and its

sound qualities, and communicate most immediately to the listener. The

framework for the music and the context of the message of the recording

are crafted at this level of perspective.

The characteristics of the overall texture are:

• Perceived performance environment

• Sound stage

• Reference dynamic level

• Program dynamic contour

• Timbral balance

• Form

The perceived performance environment creates a world within which the

recording exists. This adds a dimension to the music recording that can

substantially add to the interpretation of the music. The level of intimacy of

the recording can become related to the level of intimacy of the message

of the music. This element will largely be deﬁ ned by how the sound stage is

placed in the perceived performance environment, the listener’s perceived

distance from the sound stage, and the size and depth of the sound stage.

The reference dynamic level represents the intensity and expressive charac-

ter of the music and recording. What the music is trying to say is translated

into emotion, energy, expression, and a sense of purpose. These are reﬂ ect-

ed in recordings and performances, and are understood as a perceived per-

formance intensity that is used as a reference dynamic level. Understanding

this underlying characteristic of the music allows the recordist to calculate

the relationships of materials to the inherent spirit of the song/composition.

The program dynamic contour allows us to understand the overall dynam-

ic motion of the entire piece of music. Actual dynamic level will impact the

recording process in many ways, and it also shapes the listener’s expe-

rience. While program dynamic contour depicts how the work unfolds

dynamically over time, this contour is often closely matched to the drama

of the music. The tension and relaxation, the points of climax and repose,

movement from one major idea to another, and more are contained in the

contour of this sum of all dynamic information.

Timbral balance provides information on the spectrum of the entire musi-

cal texture. The movement of musical ideas through the “vertical space” of

pitch provides a sense of place for musical materials and adds an important

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

231

dimension to the character of the overall texture. The number of sources,

their densities and distribution throughout the pitch registers provide a

density to the texture that can also shape the direction, motion and sound

quality of the overall texture. The sound quality of the overall texture is

largely shaped by timbral balance. Timbral balance can be envisioned as

providing spectral information—materials that are harmonically related,

and those that are not, all add their unique qualities to the production as

they change over time or provide a continual presence that is part of the

overall sound of the recording/music.

Finally, the form of music is created by all of these characteristics, plus the

text and musical ideas. This essence of the song is what reaches deeply into

the listener. It resonates within the listener when the song is understood.

Form is the overall concept of the piece, as understood as a multidimen-

sional, but single idea.

Figure 10-2 presents a time line and the structure of “Lucy in the Sky with

Diamonds.” This is an outline of the structural materials that contribute

to the form of the piece. The shape of the music and interrelationships of

parts, as well as elements of the text, can be layered into this graph and

made available for evaluation.

Figure 10-2

Time line

and structure—The

Beatles’ “Lucy in the

Sky with Diamonds.”

1 3 5 7 9 11 15 19 23 27 31 35 39 43 47 51 55 59 63 67 71 75

Intro

Chorus

Bridge

77 81

85 89 93 97 101 105 109 113 117

Chorus

Bridge

Chorus

Fade

Verse 1 Verse 2

Coda

Verse 3

Matching the text against the structure of the piece will allow the reader

to notice recurring sections of text/music combinations—verses and cho-

ruses. The musical materials enhance nuances of the meaning of the text as

they were captured and enhanced by the recording process.

Dynamic relationships between the various sections of “Lucy in the Sky

with Diamonds” are present. These are clearly observed in the program

dynamic contour graph (Figure 10-3). The graph represents the overall

shape and dynamic motion of the song. The reader can experience how

that motion relates to the song’s text and sense of drama by observing the

graph while listening to the recording.

The reference dynamic level of the song is also identiﬁ ed in Figure 10-3, as

a high mezzo forte.

Chapter 10

232

Figure 10-3

Program dynamic contour—The Beatles’ “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds” (1999 Yellow

Submarine version).

Intro

1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123252729313335373941 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79

Chorus

Bridge

81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 101103105107109 111 113 115 117 119

Chorus

Bridge

Chorus

Bridge

Verse 1

Verse 2 Verse 3

CODA

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

233

The timbral balance graph of the song in Figure 10-1 allows the reader to

identify and understand how the song emphasizes one pitch area for a

time, then more evenly distributes pitch density information—moving from

one texture to another between sections. Evaluations of the perceived per-

formance environment and sound stage will provide the remaining charac-

teristics of the overall texture, allowing all to be compared and considered.

Through this process, important and fundamental characteristics of the

song can then be more readily understood and communicated to others.

Relationships of the Individual Sound Sources

and the Overall Texture

The mix of a piece of music/recording deﬁ nes the relationships of individual

sound sources to the overall texture. In the mixing process, the sound stage

is crafted by giving all sound sources a distance location and an image size

in stereo/surround location. Musical balance relationships are made during

the mix, and relationships of musical balance with performance intensity

are established. The sound quality of all of the sound sources is ﬁ nalized at

this stage also, as instruments receive any ﬁ nal signal processing to alter

amplitude, time, and frequency elements to their timbre and environmen-

tal characteristics are added.

These elements crafted in the mix exist at the perspective of the individual

sound source. Many important relationships exist at this level. This focus is

common and important for the recordist, but is not common in recreational

listening. The many ways sound relationships are shaped during mixing

bring the recordist to often focus on this level of the individual sound source

and also at the next higher level of perspective, where sounds can be com-

pared by giving equal importance and attention to all sources. Learning to

evaluate these elements, and to hear and recognize how these elements

interact to craft the mix, is one of the most important listening skills to be

developed for the recordist.

Figures 7-4 and 10-4 present two musical balance graphs of the beginning

sections of “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.” These are evaluations of two

separate versions of the song. Mixing decisions brought certain sounds to

be at different dynamic levels in each version. Listening with a focus on

several different sound sources, while comparing the two graphs to what is

heard, will provide the listener with insight into these very different mixes.

The performance-intensity tier of Figure 10-4 should also be examined and

then compared to the ﬁ nal dynamic levels. With this graph the reader is

able to identify how the mixing process transformed performed dynamics.

This gives much insight into the performance of the tracks and their sound

qualities, and the musical balance decisions that followed.

Chapter 10

234

Figure 10-4

Musical balance versus performance intensity graph—The Beatles’ “Lucy in the Sky with Dia-

monds” (1999 Yellow Submarine version).

Performance IntensityMusical Balance

1 3 5 7 9 111315171921232527293133353739 414345

1 Lowrey Organ

2 John 1

3 John 2

4 John 3

5 Paul 1

6Tom

7 Bass

8 Tamboura

9 Gong

10 Guitar Acoustic

11 Guitar Melody

12 Guitar Bassline Chorus

13 Open Hi Hat

14 Hi Hat Closed

15 Kick

16 Ride w/Rivet

17 Snare

KEY

measures:

Intro

Bridge

Chorus

Verse 1

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

235

The sound stage provides each recording with many of its unique quali-

ties. In examining the structure of sound stage, the listener will learn many

things about a recording. Important among the many qualities are:

• Distribution of sources in stereo or surround location

• Size of images (lateral and depth)

• Clearly deﬁ ned sound-source locations, or a highly blended texture of

locations (wall of sound)

• Depth of sound stage

• Distribution of distance locations

• Location of the nearest sound source

• Sound-stage dimensions that draw the listener’s attention or are

absorbed into the concept of the piece

• Changes in sound-stage dimensions or source locations

Figure 10-5 presents the stereo location of sound sources in the 1999

Yel-

low Submarine version of “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.” The phantom-

image locations and sizes add deﬁ nition to the sound sources and musical

materials, and the width of several images changes between sections.

Comparing the graphs for timbral balance (Figure 10-1) and stereo location

(10-5), it is possible to examine how pitch information (“vertical space”) is

distributed along the stereo sound ﬁ eld (lateral space). As the song begins,

each source is in its own pitch area and stereo location. As sounds with simi-

lar pitch areas enter, some are given their own location to give the parts clar-

ity. This allows them to be distinguished from others of similar pitch areas;

notice, for example, the high hat open and closed, relative to the Lowrey

organ in measures 12–14. Parts in the same pitch areas that are intended to

blend (or fuse) are at the same or similar stereo location; this is especially

evident with Lennon’s lead vocal and its doubling in measures 20–22.

Comparing this stereo location graph (Figure 10-5) to surround placements

in Figures 10-6 and 10-7 allows some interesting observations. The lead

vocal, Lowrey organ, and tamboura have been graphed into the ﬁ rst verse

in the surround version, and both graphs need to be used to clearly deﬁ ne

their dimensions. The image sizes and locations in a surround mix are quite

different from the two-channel versions, and offer a very different experi-

ence of the song. Comparing these location graphs will allow the reader

insight into what makes each mix different.

Chapter 10

236

Figure 10-5

Stereo location graph—The Beatles’ “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds” (1999 Yellow Submarine

version).

1 3 5 7 9 1113 15171921232527293133353739 414345

Intro

Bridge

Chorus

AA B

1 Lowrey Organ

2 John 1

3 John 2

4 John 3

5 Paul 1

6Tom

7 Bass

8 Tamboura

9 Gong

10 Guitar Acoustic

11 Guitar Melody

12 Guitar Bassline Chorus

13 Open Hi Hat

14 Hi Hat Closed

15 Kick

16 Ride w/Rivet

17 Snare

KEY

measures:

1 3 5 7 9 1113 15171921232527293133353739 414345

Verse 1

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

237

Figure 10-6

Sur-

round sound location

graph—The Beatles’

“Lucy in the Sky with

Diamonds” (1999

Yellow Submarine

version).

1 3 5 7 9 111315171921 23

Vocals

KEY

Lowrey Organ

Tamboura

Intro AA

Figure 10-7

Surround

image placements

of Lowrey organ,

tamboura, and vocal

images—The Beatles’

“Lucy in the Sky with

Diamonds” (1999

Yellow Submarine

version).

KEY

Lowrey Organ

Tamboura Vocals location

and density of

ambience

Chapter 10

238

The reader is encouraged also to evaluate the stereo location of the sources

in the original Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band version of the song.

Then compare the three location evaluations for similarities and differenc-

es of image location and sizes, and note when and how images change

sizes or locations. In the end, consider how the different sizes and locations

of the images impact the musicality of the song and how this aspect of

imaging contributes to presenting the musical ideas.

Figure 10-8 is a blank distance location graph for the beginning sections

of “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.” The graph can be used to plot the

distance location of sources from any of the three versions of the song—or

to compare one or more selected sources from all three versions. In listen-

ing to all three versions of the song, the reader will notice some striking

differences in distance location. Between the two-channel versions, sound-

source changes in distance locations are more pronounced in the

Yellow

Submarine

version, and during the ﬁ rst verse the bass and lead vocal are

closer than in the Sgt. Pepper version. Consider how distance cues enhance

certain musical ideas and sound sources, and provide clarity or blending of

images in various instances.

Figure 10-8

Distance

location graph for The

Beatles’ “Lucy in the

Sky with Diamonds.”

1 3 5 7 9 111315171921232527293133353739 414345

Intro

Bridge

Chorus

measures:

Proximity Near Far

Verse 1

Together the sound qualities of all of the sound sources jointly shape the

timbral balance of the song. Sound quality also contributes fundamen-

tally to the performance intensity of the sound source, and might con-

tribute to shaping the song’s reference dynamic level. The environmental

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

239

characteristics of the source also contribute to its overall sound quality.

They fuse with the source’s sound quality to add new dimensions and

additional sound-quality cues to the resulting composite sound. Lastly, the

sound quality of each source provides important distance information, as

the amount of timbral detail primarily determines distance location.

This timbral detail carries over into clarity of sound-source timbres in the

mix. Sound sources can have well deﬁ ned timbres with extreme detail and

clarity. Conversely, their sound qualities can be well blended with details

absorbed into an overall quality. Both extremes are desirable in different

musical situations. Both would place the sound at different distances, and

each would cause the sound source to be heard differently in the same

mix—each has the potential to be more or less prominent in a musical

texture than the other.

How sound sources “sound” is an important aspect of recordings. Models

of instruments and speciﬁ c performers have their own characteristic sound

qualities. Sound qualities are matched to musical materials and the desired

expressive qualities to create a close bonding of sound quality and musi-

cal material. For instance, the opening of “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds”

would sound very different on a Hammond organ than on the Lowrey used

in the recording. A listener would recognize something incorrect about the

source, even before they might identify the sound quality as being differ-

ent. That musical idea is forever wedded to that original sound quality.

The Complete Evaluation

Great insight into productions can be found through an evaluation of all of

the artistic elements in a particular recording/piece of music. This process

can allow the listener to explore the inner workings of the sound relation-

ships of a recorded piece of music in great depth. The listener would beneﬁ t

from performing this exercise on a number of pieces, over the course of a

long period of time. Not only will the listening and evaluation skills of the

listener be reﬁ ned, if recordings are thoughtfully chosen, these evaluations

will also provide many insights into the unique production styles of certain

engineers and producers, as well as an understanding of the artists’ work.

Complete evaluations can also bring attention and training to shifting focus

while listening. Individual evaluations of individual artistic elements main-

tain the listener’s focus at a speciﬁ c level of perspective; this has been our

listening practice thus far. Now comparing graphs of various elements and

graphs at various levels of perspective will bring the listener practice in

shifting focus with a purpose. This training in shifting focus is excellent

preparation for the continual shifting of focus required in producing record-

ings. It will also lead the listener to be able to make faster evaluations of

recordings and judgments of the various qualities of recorded sound.

Chapter 10

240

The project of performing a complete evaluation of a piece will be lengthy.

It will take the beginner many hours of concentrated listening. The demands

of this project are, however, readily justiﬁ ed by the value of the informa-

tion and experience gained. This project will develop and reﬁ ne critical and

analytical listening skills in all areas.

For greatest beneﬁ t, an entire song should be evaluated. The listener

should be mostly concerned with evaluating all of the artistic elements. An

evaluation of the traditional musical materials and the text might be help-

ful as well, but is not necessary for most purposes. After an evaluation of

the artistic elements individually, the listener should evaluate how these

aspects relate to one another, and how they enhance one another.

Elements To Be Evaluated

This complete analysis of an entire recording is strongly encouraged. Many

aspects of a recording will only become evident when evaluations of sev-

eral artistic elements are compared with one another, and compared to the

traditional musical materials. The use of the artistic elements in communi-

cating the musical message of the work will become much more apparent,

when their interrelationships are recognized.

The listener will compile a large set of data, in performing the many evalu-

ations spanning Chapter 6 through the pitch density and timbral balance

evaluations of Chapter 10. These many evaluations will represent many dif-

ferent perspectives and areas of focus. Some of this information will be

pertinent to understanding the musical message of the work, and some of

the information will pertain to its elements of sound (such as how stereo

location is used in presenting the various sound sources).

In addition, some of the information will be pertinent to appreciating the

technical qualities of the recording. When evaluating recordings, we should

also bring our attention to the quality of the signal, the presence of noises

and distortions, performance issues and other matters related to the integ-

rity of the signal and the quality of the production. If desired, one can listen

to seek information on “how” certain recording results or were achieved.

All of this information will contribute to the audio professional’s complete

understanding of the piece of music, of how the piece made use of the

recording medium, and of the sound qualities of the recording itself.

The sequence of evaluations that is usually most efﬁ cient in evaluating an

entire work (depending upon the individual work, it may vary slightly) is:

• List all of the sound sources of the recording

• Create a time line of the entire work

• Plot each sound source’s presence against the time line

• Deﬁ ne unknown sound sources and synthesized sounds through sound

quality evaluations

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

241

• Designate major divisions in the musical structure against the time line

(verse, chorus, etc.)

• Mark recurring phrases or musical materials, similarly, against the time

line; an in-depth study of traditional musical materials would be appro-

priate at this stage, if of interest

• Evaluate the text for its own characteristics and its relationships to the

structure of the traditional musical materials, as appropriate

• Evaluate the pitch areas of unpitched sounds

• Determine reference dynamic level

• Perform a program dynamic contour evaluation

• Create a musical balance graph

• Create a performance intensity graph

• Graph the song’s stereo location or surround location

• Evaluate the work for distance location

• Perform environmental characteristics evaluations of all host environ-

ments of sound sources and the perceived performance environment

• Create a timbral balance graph of the work

• Study these evaluations to make observations on their interrelation-

ships and to identify the unique characteristics of the recording

• Examine the recording for technical issues, integrity of the signal, per-

formance and recording technique ﬂ aws, and other issues with the

quality of the recording

• Identify a stream of shifting focus on various elements and perspec-

tives after compiling a complete evaluation graph from the previous

graphs

• Observe how the artistic elements work jointly with the musical materi-

als and the text to create the recording and the song/music

Observing the Roles and Interaction of Elements

As we have learned, all of the elements of the recording have roles in

delivering the musical ideas and message of the recording. Further, all of

the elements interact and support the activity of the other elements (and

potentially can detract from other elements). In examining these aspects,

we learn much about the recording and how it presents the music.

The following materials may be coupled on the same graph (on separate

tiers), or on similar graphs. They are all at the same perspective (at the level

of the sound source):

• Performance intensity

• Musical balance

• Distance location

• Stereo location or surround location

• Pitch density (timbral balance showing individual sound sources)

Chapter 10

242

Pitch density is timbral balance considered at the perspective of the indi-

vidual sound source. Often when the perspective is not of the individual

source, groups of instruments present a single musical idea; in this case

they function as a single source. Instruments capable of playing several

parts simultaneously (such as a keyboard or drum set) are divided into sev-

eral separate pitch areas—each functioning as a separate sound source. In

this way the timbral-balance graph’s information can be directly compared

to the four elements listed above.

These ﬁ ve artistic elements will be interrelated in nearly all recording pro-

ductions. Observing their interrelationships will allow the listener to extract

signiﬁ cant information about the music and the mix. The reader can explore

this material by reviewing the graphs of “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds”

found throughout this chapter.

In making these observations, the listener will continually formulate ques-

tions about the recording and seek to ﬁ nd meaningful answers. The ques-

tions of how artistic elements (and all musical materials) relate to one

another will center on:

• Patterns of activity within any artistic element (patterns of activity are

sequences of levels within the artistic element, and rhythmic patterns

created by the relationships of those levels),

• Levels of any artistic element (how high-pitched, what loudness levels,

etc.) and the areas they span,

• Speed or rate of patterns or changes within the elements,

• Interrelationships of patterns between artistic elements (Do the same

or similar patterns exist in more than one element?).

Music is constructed as similarities and differences of values and patterns of

musical materials. This is also the way humans perceive music. People per-

ceive patterns within music (its materials and the artistic elements). Listen-

ers will perceive the qualities (levels and characteristics) of the elements of

the music and will relate the various aspects of the music to one another.

At the same time, the listener should compare what they are hearing with

what was previously heard, and to their previous experiences. Meaning

and signiﬁ cance will be found in this information by looking for similarities

and differences between the materials.

The listener should ask “What is similar?” between two musical ideas (or

artistic elements); “What is different?”; “How are they related?” These will

be answered through observing the information that was collected during

the many evaluations. The shapes of the lines on the various graphs may

show patterns. The vertical axes of the graphs may show the extremes of

the states of the materials and all of their other values.

The listener’s ability to formulate meaningful questions for these evalua-

tions will be developed over time and practice. They will be asking: “What

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

243

makes this piece of music unique?”; “What makes this recording unique?”;

“How is this recording constructed?”; “How is this piece of music construct-

ed?”; “What makes this recording effective?” “What is important and how

is it presented?”; “How does [insert any element] contribute to delivering

the music or musical idea(s)?” Many other, much more detailed questions

will be formulated during the course of the evaluation. The listener should

ﬁ nally ask, “Which of these relationships are signiﬁ cant to the communica-

tion of the musical message; which are not?”

The use of the artistic elements in the recording can also be considered

in their relationships to the traditional musical elements and materials.

This brings an understanding of the importance of each musical idea, as

related to the piece as a whole. Through these observations, the recordist

will obtain an understanding of the signiﬁ cance of the artistic elements to

communicating the message (or meaning) of the music. The recordist can

then understand and work to control how the recording process enhances

music, and how it contributes to musical ideas and the overall character of

the piece. The complete evaluation graph will assist all this, and more.

Stream of Shifting Focus and Perspective

A ﬁ nal step in a complete evaluation of a recording is to identify a stream

of shifting focus. This will help one to recognize the various elements and

perspectives that shape the recording in signiﬁ cant ways, as the work pro-

gresses. This will be shaped at several perspectives and will be different

from any one moment in time to another.

Figure 10-9 presents a “complete evaluation graph” to assist in compil-

ing this information. The elements at the perspective of the overall texture

appear in the top tier; the three elements at the very top of this tier are

qualities that do not change. They are separated from the three qualities of

the overall texture that can change over the course of the song by a thin

line. A heavy line separates the top tier from the bottom tier where the ele-

ments at the perspective of the individual sound source that appear. Nota-

tions drawing attention to important activities in each element are made on

the graph. Notes about important characteristics and qualities of elements

should also appear here. This allows for elements and perspectives to be

easily compared. The time line allows the reader to follow the elements as

they unfold over the song.

This study will bring the listener’s attention to important aspects of the

music and the recording. If followed throughout a work it will provide an

experience of hearing the song move from one idea to another, from one

element to another, from the importance of one level of perspective to

another. As an example, one might hear how distance shapes a certain

sound in an important way at a certain moment, and then quickly shift to

an important quality of timbral balance that was created by this change in

Chapter 10

244

distance, moving again to hearing and understanding how the program

dynamic contour was then altered, then recognizing that a certain sound

source became less prominent in the mix because of this activity and upon

investigation ﬁ nding that its loudness did not change but its spectral con-

tent was altered. The reader will be able to use this graph to recognize and

follow the most signiﬁ cant events and activity at any one time, and also to

recognize and follow how all other elements contribute at the same and at

other levels of perspective.

This stream of information brings a new understanding to the music and

the mix, to how the recording process shaped the music and how the artis-

tic elements work jointly with the musical materials to successfully deliver

a quality music recording. The role of shifting focus and shifting perspec-

tive will be better understood. Of as great importance, the reader will be

Figure 10-9

Complete

evaluation graph.

Form

Perceived Perfor-

mance Environment

RDL

Program Dynamic

Contour

Sound Stage

Dimensions

Timbral Balance

Pitch Area

Pitch Density

Sound Quality

Environments

Distance

Stereo Location

Performance

Intensity

Musical Balance

Structure:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

245

able to practice the process of shifting perspectives and focus that takes

place continually in recording production. This skill can be difﬁ cult to learn

how to execute in a controlled and deliberate manner, if only practiced dur-

ing actual production work.

Figure 10-10 is a complete evaluation graph of the opening of The Beatles’

“Here Comes the Sun.” This summary of elements provides an overview of

important activities, and from this we can achieve a greater understanding

of the recording. The graph clearly shows that changes in instrumentation

and elements of the mix coincide with the changing structure of the song.

During these 15 measures, important changes take place in sound-stage

dimensions, timbral balance and pitch density, distance location, stereo

location and musical balance. These all contribute to a changing context for

the song that adds to its character. Attention should be drawn to these at

strategic moments. A few of these are:

• The sound stage moving from fully left to the center during measure 8,

followed by a sudden broadening of the sound stage in measure 9,

• The different “proximity” distance locations of the doubling guitars in

the ﬁ rst four measures, the dominance of the “near” area in measures

9 through 13 and the dominance of the “proximity” area in measure 14

and 15.

• Timbral balance is focused on the “low-mid” through “mid-upper”

ranges from the beginning through measure 13; the density of activ-

ity varies signiﬁ cantly but the bandwidth of pitch registers being used

does not change markedly (except for measure 8’s solo Moog glissan-

do). This is especially noticeable in measures 9 through 13; at measure

14, the pitch areas covered suddenly expand to encompass activity

from the “low” register into “high.”

The reader would beneﬁ t from performing several or all of these graphs to

notice the subtleties of activity. Following all elements into the next section

would provide much more interesting information; as the song unfolds,

more changes in the mix enhance the song profoundly. The reader might

wish to refer back to Figure 6-7 for pitch areas of several percussion sounds

and to Figure 7-3 for the entire program dynamic contour of “Here Comes

the Sun.”

This complete evaluation process will greatly assist the recordist in under-

standing how the artistic elements can be crafted during the recording pro-

cess to enhance, shape, or create musical materials and relationships.

The recording production styles of others can be studied and learned. By

understanding the sound qualities of a recording and being able to recog-

nize what comprises those sound qualities, the sound of another recording

or type of music can be emulated by the recordist in their own work as

desired.

Chapter 10

246

Form

Perc Perf Env

RDL

Program Dynamic

Contour

Sound Stage

Dimensions

Timbral Balance

Pitch Area

Pitch Density

Sound Quality

Environments

Distance

Stereo Location

Performance

Intensity

Musical Balance

Structure:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

12 13 14 15 16

Introduction

Chorus

begins below

the RDL

Low-

Mid

alone

Upper threshold

remains in Mid-

Upper, lower

Low-Mid added

Texture thickens,

range does not

expand

Sudden expansion

High to Low, most

energy remains cen-

tered on Mid register

See Figure 6-7

for graphs

Doubled

guitars alone

Moog

gliss

alone

Lead vocal,

guitars, strings

Background vocals &

more guitars added

Drums, hi hat,

bass guitar added

Sine

wave

based

Synth 1

Triangle

wave

based

Synth 2

See

Figure

8-4

New

environ-

ment

Mid

“Near”

“Proximity” area

now dominates

Left to

Center

movement

Lead vocal center,

strings Center/

Right, guitars Left

Background vocals

Right

Drums, hi hat, bass

guitar added in

Center area in

various widths

Qualities of a

medium sized room

ca. 20% of 

Left side alone,

narrow and local-

ized; all Proximity

Steadily rises throughout the Middle Section to its peak (see

Figure 7-3 for detail that follows the structure of the song)

Strings establish

the rear boundary

Added sounds in Near

gradually emerge from

guitars; movement to center

Sudden broadening—Left to Right

filled to speaker locations with strong

center image; Depth spans from

mid-Proximity through rear of Near

Core activity is in Low-Mid through the

lower Mid-Upper registers

Synth 1 enters fol-

lowed shortly by

Synth 2

Many instruments occupy the same

registers or pitch areas of pitch density

Guitars and vocals in same

environment

“Near” area dominates

All guitars in same

environment

Synths in a different

environment

All guitars in Proximity

but at different

distances

Synths in Near at

different distances

All guitars together

on Left side

Synths also on Left

Most variation occurs in the vocals and the acoustic and bass guitar parts

Shifting continually due to instrument entrances and exists, performance intensity and mix levels

Figure 10-10

Complete evaluation graph of the opening of The Beatles’ “Here Comes the Sun.”

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

247

Using Graphs for Making Evaluations

and in Production Work

Graphing the artistic elements may be time consuming and at times tedious

and perhaps frustrating. It is important, however, for developing listening

skills and evaluation skills, especially during beginning studies. It is also

valuable for in-depth looks at recordings, providing insights into the artistic

aspects of the recordist’s own recordings and the recordings of others.

This process of graphing the qualities of the various artistic elements is

also a useful documentation tool. Graphs can be used to keep track of how

a mix is being structured or how the overall texture is being crafted. Many

of the graphs or diagrams can even be used to plan a mix. For example,

the imaging diagram can be used to plan the distribution of instruments on

the sound stage and consider distance assignments before beginning the

process of mixing sound—perhaps even before selecting a microphone to

begin tracking. Working professionals through beginning students will ﬁ nd

these useful in a variety of applications.

Detailed graphs of artistic elements are not proposed for regular use in pro-

duction projects. The graphs are not intended for the production process

itself, though they might be of some use in certain planning and record keep-

ing matters. Audio professionals must be able to recognize and understand

the concepts of the recording production, and hear many of the general rela-

tionships, quickly and without the aid of the graphs. The graphs are intended

to develop these skills, and to provide a means for more detailed and in-

depth evaluations that would take place outside of the production process.

Recordists who have developed a sophisticated auditory memory will also

ﬁ nd these graphing systems of evaluation to be useful for notating their

production ideas, and for documenting recording production practices.

These acts will allow them to remember and evaluate their production

practices more effectively, allowing them more control of their craft.

Summary

The pitch area that comprises the focused frequency content of individual

sound sources is joined with the source’s musical material to establish pitch

density. This takes place at the perspective of the individual sound source

and their interaction with other sources. At the highest level of perspective,

overall texture, we observe timbral balance, as the frequency content of the

recording is established by the frequency content of each sound source. In

this way, each sound source and the musical materials they present can be

envisioned as a “partial” in the “spectrum” of the overall texture’s timbral

balance. With timbral balance addressed, all of the dimensions of the over-

all texture have been explored.

Chapter 10

248

Chapter 10 concludes Part Two with a discussion of how the individual ele-

ments contribute to shaping the recording. At the perspective of the indi-

vidual sound source, musical materials are presented and enhanced by the

artistic elements. Musical balance, distance location, image size and place-

ment, sound quality and other elements contribute to shaping the music

and the recording. These relationships are realized in production through

using pitch, dynamic and spatial relationships in planning (composing) and

executing (performing) the mix. These individual elements become part of

the fabric of the overall texture, at the highest level of perspective.

There are six characteristics or dimensions of the overall texture. The three

dimensions of form, perceived performance environment and reference

dynamic level are qualities that are single, global concepts that remain ﬁ xed

throughout the work—they are not time dependent. The three qualities of

sound stage, program dynamic contour and timbral balance are variables;

they may change from moment to moment as the song is experienced,

and are the product of all of the sound sources coming together to create

an overall state within the elements of spatial relationships, dynamics and

frequency content, respectively. These three qualities are time dependent

and create an overall shape of the recording.

As we have seen, the recording’s artistic elements and the song’s musi-

cal materials and text are fundamentally linked. The recording’s artistic

elements contribute to the delivery of musical ideas and can help shape

them; they present the musical ideas in important ways, and at times can

add important dimensions to the music. The artistic elements act in concert

with the musical materials and text to create the music and the recording.

Part Three will explore concepts that will assist the reader in putting these

ideas into practice in their own recordings.

Throughout Part Two a systematic method for evaluating the artistic ele-

ments of recordings and their impact on the recording’s delivery of musi-

cal ideas has been explored. This method embraces each element sepa-

rately and works toward their interaction. Materials and exercises have

been ordered carefully. All of the exercises presented in the text are listed

at the beginning of the book after the table of contents. The exercises are

ordered to systematically develop the reader’s sound evaluation and listen-

ing skills. Working through the exercises in this order will be most effective

for most people. Readers with much experience and well-developed skills

will still ﬁ nd at least a few exercises that are sufﬁ ciently advanced to test

and improve their skills. Learning anything new requires effort and a will-

ingness to reach into the unknown.

Very sophisticated listening skills are required in audio and music. Devel-

oping such skills from the beginning will take practice, patience, and per-

severance. At times the listener will be told to listen to things they have

never before experienced. They will have no reason to believe such sound

characteristics even exist, let alone that they can be heard, recognized, and

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

249

understood. Faith will be required; a willingness to be open to possibilities

and leap blindly into an activity, searching the sound materials for what

they have been told exists. Using the processes that were learned and the

graphs that were created throughout Part Two will make this process easier

and more productive.

Following the system will give the listener a reﬁ ned ability in critical and

analytical listening. The listener will learn to communicate effectively about

sound, and will be able to apply this new language to many situations.

Among other things, Part Three will explore how these new listening skills

and knowledge of sound can provide the recordist with the ability to craft

quality and artistically inspired recordings.

Exercises

Exercise 10-1

Pitch Density Exercise

Select a recording with an instrument performing alone, or with very few other

instruments, over the ﬁ rst several sections of the work. The instrument’s musi-

cal material should show some noticeable and considerable change in pitch

levels. This exercise will graph the pitch density of this single instrument over

this period.

Pitch density will be graphed to show the musical material the instrument is

performing and the prominent aspects of its spectrum.

The process for determining the pitch density for a single source will follow

the following sequence:

1. During the initial hearing(s), establish the length of the time line. Notice

entrances and exits of the instrument against the time line.

2. Check the time line for accuracy and make any alterations. At the same

time, work to identify the musical ideas that the instrument is presenting

and note their presence against the time line.

3. Transcribe the instrument’s pitch material onto the graph, so its melodic

contour is represented as a single line on the graph. This might represent

the fundamental frequency of the sound-source timbre.

4. Next notice how the single melodic line falls into phrases that generate

distinct, individual musical ideas. Mark the beginning and ending points

of those ideas, and modify the melodic contour to show a more general

outline of the line, eliminating small and fast variations of pitch level.

5. Turn focus to the spectrum of the instrument’s ﬁ rst sound. Determine the

bandwidth of the pitch area by identifying where the spectrum becomes

Chapter 10

250

about one-third the loudness of the lowest frequency. This will determine

the upper boundary of the pitch area.

6. Scan the musical material to determine changes in performance intensity.

These changes will bring about changes in the instrument’s spectrum that

often change the bandwidth of this pitch area. Note these changes on

your graph.

7. Map out the upper boundary of the pitch area by listening to the spectral

information against the lowest frequency.

8. Once these boundaries are ﬁ nalized, make observations on the density of

spectral activity (amount of frequency and overtone information) within

the deﬁ ned pitch area.

Exercise 10-2

Timbral Balance Exercise

Select a recording with four to six sound sources, to graph the pitch density

over the ﬁ rst three or four major sections of the work. The recording should

contain timbral balance changes within and between sections.

The musical texture must (1) be scanned to determine the musical ideas pres-

ent. The musical ideas might be a primary melodic (vocal) line, a secondary

vocal, a bass accompaniment line, a block-chord keyboard accompaniment,

and any number of different rhythmic patterns in the percussion parts. They

should then (2) be identiﬁ ed by instrument or voice performing the material,

and listed in a key.

Each idea will (3) then have its pitch areas deﬁ ned as a composite of its pitch

material and the prominent aspects of the sound quality of the instrument(s)

or voice(s) that produced the idea.

The process of determining the timbral balance graph will use the same skills

developed in Exercise 10-1. This graph will plot the pitch density of all of the

musical ideas of all of the sound sources to clearly represent the complete

frequency content of the recording.

The reader should perform a pitch-density evaluation of all of the sound

sources in the example, singling out each source for careful evaluation. Once

these are completed, this pitch-density information of all sound sources will

be combined into a single timbral balance graph.

Complete Evaluations and Understanding Observations

251

Exercise 10-3

Shifting Focus and Perspective Exercise

Select a short song with only a few instruments to evaluate completely. Create

all of the graphs for the overall texture and for the individual sound source,

as outlined above.

Create a complete evaluation graph. Transfer the important events and char-

acteristics of each element onto the graph, in its designated place. When an

element changes, note where this change occurred and its nature.

Once the graph is completed, listen to the work again following this graph.

Highlight the most important changes that occurred. Next, observe the

changes that you heard as not being as signiﬁ cant as others, and note how

they might lend a supportive role to the other elements.

Practice changing focus and perspective in a controlled and deliberate way by

listening for speciﬁ c material and changes while following this graph. Next,

listen to the recording with your knowledge of the important elements and

changes of perspective, and when important shifts occur, try to follow these

changes without the aid of the graph.

253

Part Three

Crafting the Mix:

Shaping Music and Sound, and

Controlling the Recording Process

255

11 Bringing Artistic Judgment to

the Recording Process

Artistic judgment will be brought to the recording process by the recordist.

How the recordist makes use of the artistic elements shapes the recording

in signiﬁ cant ways. The recordist may shape the sound in artistically sensi-

tive ways, or not. Skilled recordists are artists, and are able to make these

decisions intuitively, if not consciously.

The recordist can bring artistry to the recording by learning the recording

process well enough to use it creatively, by learning the sound qualities

of the instruments of the recording studio (recording equipment and tech-

nologies), and learning all of the possible ways the recording processes

and devices can transform sound. These will give the recordist the tool set

needed to control how the recording process shapes sound. The recordist

will then be able to make decisions on how to shape the recording. Those

are the decisions that directly contribute to the music and create a charac-

teristic sound to the recording.

Part Three Overview

Part Three will explore how the recording process can be used creatively.

It will bring the reader to consider the sound qualities of recording devices

and talk about how to evaluate sound during production—and before and

after. The recording process will be considered from beginning to end, in

broad terms.

Part Three will deﬁ ne basic concepts, aesthetic and artistic considerations,

and some philosophies on recording. This creates a broad framework for

the recordist, a way to orient any recording project toward fundamental

principles. This big-picture approach may at times seem to state the obvi-

ous, but it is intended to bring the reader (recordist) to keep a perspective

on the overall direction of a project and of basic concerns. All too easily we

Chapter 11

256

are overwhelmed by details and lose track of overall quality and direction.

Our effectiveness is diminished and our artistic vision blurred.

One of the goals of this section is to stimulate thought, to get the reader

(beginning recordist) to consider how to use the recording process cre-

atively, and to bring the reader to develop a thoughtful and ﬂ uid approach

to working in the studio. Ultimately this should lead the reader to develop

their own personal way of working, and over time perhaps even their own

unique production “sound.”

While Part Three explores certain aspects of production in some detail, it

does NOT present step-by-step sequences of instructions. It is designed to

move the reader to think about what occurs and to consider the process as

a creative endeavor.

Recording equipment is discussed in general terms. The concepts deliv-

ered are relevant to all devices and technologies, and should remain so

with changing technologies. It is signiﬁ cant to recognize this discussion is

not technology dependent, and should remain valid when applied to any

technology or device—and as technology inevitably changes.

Part Three needs to be supplemented by readings on recording technolo-

gies and on equipment use and production techniques. These areas must

be learned for the reader to be able to control the recording process well.

This information is outside the scope of this writing and can be found in

many excellent books (many of which are listed in the bibliography).

The Signal Chain

The overall concept of the recording process involves the ﬂ ow of signal

through a chain of recording/reproduction stages or devices. The recording-

and-reproduction signal chain may take many forms, depending on the

nature and complexity of the recording project and the technologies being

used.

The stages of the signal ﬂ ow are interrelated. They interact with one anoth-

er, and their sequence can shift depending on operator convenience or the

desired sound quality of the signal (such as a sound source being record-

ed). While signal ﬂ ow is sequential, it can be altered for the individual proj-

ect or because of personal working preferences (developed over time and

with experience). Altering the sequence of the signal chain also can alter

sound quality; consider the result of placing a noise gate on a signal before

it is sent through an equalizer, as opposed to afterwards.

The ﬂ ow of the signal through the chain, and the order of equipment and

events, will often be consistent with Figure 11-1 and Figure 11-2. The two

ﬁ gures show the general signal ﬂ ow from tracking through mixdown. Fig-

ure 11-3 presents a typical signal chain of a digital audio workstation (DAW)

Bringing Artistic Judgment to the Recording Process

257

with related input/output and monitoring systems, demonstrating much of

the signal ﬂ ow occurs in software within the DAW.

The activities and associated devices of any recording-and-reproduction

signal chain generally appear in the sequence outlined below. Some “devic-

es” (real or virtual) are used continually (or intermittently) throughout the

recording process, such as the mixing console and the monitoring system.

Other activities, such as editing, may occur at several different stages of the

production process and within the signal chain, or might not occur at all.

Figure 11-1

Traditional

signal chain for track-

ing sessions.

Monitoring

Record

Levels

Preprocessing

Tracking and

Overdubs

Sound Generators

(Synthesizers and

Computers)

Computer Control

MIDI, SMPTE, and

Proprietary Automation Systems

Tracking Sessions

Creating

and

Capturing

the Sound

Digital or Analog Multitrack Recorder

Digital Audio Workstation

Tracking

• Microphones or sound generators

• Mixing console (preprocessing, record levels and routing)

• Digital multitrack recorder or analog multitrack recorder (perhaps with

noise reduction processors), digital audio workstation, or other digital

or computer-based storage

Mixdown

• Digital multitrack recorder or analog multitrack recorder (perhaps with

noise-reduction processors), digital audio workstation, or other digital

or computer-based storage

• Mixing console (routing and mixing)

• Signal processors

Chapter 11

258

• System control methods (automation systems, MIDI, SMPTE, and

others)

• Mixdown and master recorder (analog, digital, or computer-based)

• Editing (razor blade or computer-based)

• Monitoring

Figure 11-2

Tradi-

tional signal chain for

mixdown sessions.

Monitoring

Mixdown

and

Mastering

Mixdown

Signal Processing

Computer Control

MIDI, SMPTE, and

Proprietary Automation Systems

Mixdown Sessions

Multitrack

Storage

Sound Generators

(Synthesizers and

Computers)

Many subcategories of these real and virtual devices exist, and many of these

devices can be used for multiple purposes. In keeping with the approach

of remembering broad concepts, the reader is encouraged to think about

equipment functions in basic terms: speciﬁ cally, what the device does (for

example, mixing consoles exist to mix and route signals—anything else is

an add-on); how the device accomplishes its task (it combines several sig-

nals into one with variable proportions and it sends signals from one place

to another). Such general observations can keep the process simple, when

it starts to get complicated.

Evolving technologies can tend to blur traditional processes and at times

reﬁ ne them. The common DAW brings many of the above components of

the traditional signal chain and workﬂ ow into new dimensions (Figure 11-3).

Sound enters and leaves the DAW through an I/O interface (also referred to

as a computer audio interface). All facets of the signal chain and production

process can be handled through software on the computer (DAW). Steps

that were once sequential in analog can be simultaneous or reordered in

a DAW. This can lead to inefﬁ ciencies or poor results, but can also lead to

increased efﬁ ciency and effective work practices. Maintaining a clear vision

of the signal chain can keep the process simple, focused and productive.

Bringing Artistic Judgment to the Recording Process

259

Monitoring

Creating

and

Capturing

the Sound

Analog

Audio

MIDI

Digital Audio

and MIDI

Computer Audio

(I/O) Interface

Digital Audio

Workstation

Figure 11-3

Signal

chain of a DAW-based

system.

The sonic imprint of devices in the signal chain is an important factor

that will be covered later. The reader/recordist will learn to evaluate these

imprints and learn to apply them appropriately. How a device shapes sound,

both by how it functions and because of its own inherent sound quality, are

central concerns. Choosing devices is an important artistic decision as well

as a practical and technical one. It requires artistically sensitive judgment

on the part of the recordist, as the recording devices and processes shape

the aesthetic and artistic elements of sound.

Guiding the Creation of Music

The recordist can have many roles in making a recording. Among these

roles is creating a working environment where the magic of making art

can happen. How the recordist might participate in making art will be cov-

ered in the next chapter. The recordist usually sets the tone for recording

projects and can control many things, including a project’s pace and how

people interact. The recordist is usually largely responsible for guiding

recording projects, whether or not the others involved acknowledge this.

Recordists are often responsible for keeping the creative process moving

effectively, efﬁ ciently, and invisibly, giving guidance to the artists or giving

them enough space and support so they are free to be creative.

It has often been said that the recordist should ﬁ rst be a psychologist. While

this statement may be somewhat extreme, the recordist needs to be sensi-

tive to interpersonal relations. How they work with performers and others

will shape the project as much as their actual recording duties.

The ways people normally treat one another in everyday living, and espe-

cially in standard business environments, are often nonproductive (at best)

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260

in the recording studio. Recordists should consider how they speak with

the artists about the project, and how they interact with the artists socially

and during the creative processes. The type of image the recordist pres-

ents to the artist will inﬂ uence the artist’s comfort level and ability to work.

The recordist will try to keep artists relaxed in the studio environment and

focused on the project.

Recordists strive to get creative people to do their best work, while attempt-

ing to perform their own tasks at the highest standard. The process of creat-

ing art (a music recording) is an emotional roller coaster of ecstasy of what

has just been discovered and anguish over not having an equally brilliant

answer to “what comes next?” Time and ﬁ nancial constraints further stress

artists (clients).

Musicians/creative people are exposed and vulnerable in the recording

process. The recordist must be certain to do nothing, and not to allow

anything to happen within the session environment, or by anyone else, to

make artists feel unprotected or, worse, threatened. Musicians must have

the freedom to be creative around the recording studio, without feeling

that their every move is watched or evaluated. At times they will need to

feel they are alone.

The expressive nature of performing music will often involve taking chanc-

es, stretching performance abilities to their limits or beyond, and making

mistakes. These necessary activities can potentially embarrass conﬁ dent

(let alone less than conﬁ dent) performers if they are critically judged at

this vulnerable time. Performers need to be conﬁ dent to perform well. The

recordist is attempting to get the performers to exceed the height of their

ability. Nothing should be allowed to happen that would diminish the con-

ﬁ dence level of the performers and to take away from the trust that the

performers must have in the recordist.

While evaluations have their place in the recording process, judgments—

especially those of a negative nature—rarely can be used constructively.

Summary

The broad strokes of Part Three will give the reader/recordist a method for

applying artistic judgment to the recording process. It will lead them to

envision the project as a whole before it begins, and to retain that vision

while executing the many technical tasks and artistic decisions required to

craft a music recording.

The reader will gain insight into how recording devices and techniques can

be evaluated and applied to crafting a mix in an artistically expressive way.

261

12 The Aesthetics of

Recording Production

Two central issues deﬁ ne the differences between various approaches to

the aesthetics of recording production: (1) the relationship of the recording

to the live listening experience and (2) the relationship of the recordist to

the creative and artistic decisions of the recording.

The recording process can capture reality, or it can create (through sound

relationships) the illusion of a different world. In most situations record-

ists ﬁ nd themselves moving within the vast area that separates these two

extremes, where they enhance the natural characteristics and relationships

of sounds. The recordist will determine an appropriate recording aesthetic

suitable for the individual project, based on its planned material and over-

all concept and qualities.

The recordist will use the recording process to support the production

aesthetic of the project. The artistic elements of sound will be captured

and shaped in relation to the live listening experience and to the musi-

cal message. Recording techniques and technologies may also be used to

shape the performance, especially through editing, mixing, miking, pro-

cessing, and overdubbing techniques.

The recordist will play a more active role in shaping the materials of the

music (or the presentation of those materials) in certain projects more than

in others. This is often a result of the function of the recordist, in relation to

the other people involved in the recording project, in the artistic decision-

making process.

For each project individually, the recordist will deﬁ ne the proper record-

ing aesthetic and their own role in the creative process of crafting the

recording.

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262

The Artistic Roles of the Recordist

The recordist must have a clear idea of their role in the creative process for

each project. The project may include the composer of the music, one or

many performers, a conductor of an ensemble, and/or a speciﬁ c recording

producer. The recordist must know their responsibility to the ﬁ nal artistic

product and the roles and responsibilities of the others involved.

Of the many possibilities, the recordist may be functioning to capture the

music as closely dictated by the composer. They may be functioning to

capture, as realistically as possible, the performance of an ensemble, as

precisely directed by the conductor; they may be functioning to capture

the interactions and individual nuances of a group of performers, without

altering the performance through the recording process; or the recordist

may be functioning to precisely execute a recording producer’s instruc-

tions (often in ways that transform performances). In all of these cases and

many others, the recordist is allowing the artistic vision and decisions of

others to be most accurately represented in the recording. The recordist’s

role then is to facilitate and realize the artistic ideas of others, and not to

directly impose their ideas onto the project.

The recordist’s role sometimes might be to offer suggestions to the cre-

ative artists or even to take an active role in the artistic decision-making

processes. The role of the recordist might be active in shaping a perfor-

mance of an existing work, or in creating a new piece of music. The record-

ist might be active in determining the sound qualities of the instruments

of the recording, or in determining the sound sources themselves. Vastly

different levels of participation in the artistic process are often required

from one project to the next.

The process of writing a piece of music for a recording is often a collaborative

effort. It may take place with many people (composer, performers, producer,

recordist) or just a few (performer/composer and recordist/composer).

In many ways, the recordist functions as a creative artist and can serve the

traditional roles of a composer, a conductor, and a performer. The recordist

also shapes sounds in nontraditional ways. Recordists have unique con-

trols over sound and live performances that allow for an additional musi-

cal voice. It is possible to compose with the equipment (instruments) of

the recording studio, to shape sounds or performances through the use of

recording and mixing techniques, or to create a new musical environment

for someone else’s musical ideas and performances.

As will be explored below, the recording studio can be thought of as a

musical instrument or a collection of musical instruments. In this way, the

recordist may conduct all of the available sound sources (for example,

bringing sounds into and out of the musical texture through mixing); may

“perform” the musical ideas through the recording process; may alter or

reshape the sounds of the sources, or “interpret” the musical ideas, in

The Aesthetics of Recording Production

263

ways that are not possible acoustically; and may create (compose) new

musical ideas or sounds.

The Recording and Reality:

Shaping the Recording Aesthetic

The recordist has many potential roles in shaping the recording aesthetic.

The role of the recordist might be to capture a live event as accurately as

possible in relation to the dimensions of that real-life experience, or the

recordist might seek to alter the artistic elements of sound to enhance the

quality of that real-life experience. The recordist may even seek to create a

new reality or set of conditions for the existence and relationships of sounds.

Reality is simulated, enhanced, or created through the recording process.

The relationship of the recording to the live listening experience is central

to the aesthetic quality of the recording. A recording may differ from the

live listening experience by (1) the use of the artistic elements of sound in

ways that cannot happen in nature, and (2) the presentation of impossible

human performances and compilations of perfect performances.

The aesthetic and artistic elements that most inﬂ uence the life-like qualities

of the recording are environmental characteristics and the dimensions of

the sound stage, and the relationships of musical balance to the timbres of

sound sources.

Sound Stage and Environments

Sound exists in space. Humans conceptualize sound, especially in the con-

text of music performances, in relation to the spaces in which the sound

is heard to exist. The recording process must provide the illusion of space

to convince listeners that the sound has been reproduced in a way that

is associated with their reality. The recording will provide the illusion of a

performance space or a physical environment for the performance—this is

the perceived performance environment.

This perceived performance environment is an illusion of a space wherein

the recording can be imagined as existing during its re-performance (play-

back). The realistic nature of the performance of the recording will play a

central role in establishing the relationship of the recording to the live lis-

tening experience. The listener will subconsciously scan the recording to

establish environmental characteristics, an imaginary stage (sound stage),

and a perceived performance environment. This information allows the

listener to complete the process of establishing a reality for the listening

experience of the recorded music performance.

Chapter 12

264

These three important characteristics need to be deliberately shaped or

captured to precisely determine this aspect of the recording’s aesthetic. If

not, the recording will appear deﬁ cient in some way.

The imaginary environments will be either the captured reality of the origi-

nal performance space, an altered or enhanced reality of the original perfor-

mance space, or new realities that are created for the performance through

signal processing. The listener will make fundamental judgments about

the material of the recording based on the qualities of the environment(s)

simulated in the recording and will match the musical material against the

appropriateness of the environmental cues. An environment’s size and

sound qualities can have a profound inﬂ uence on an instrument’s presen-

tation of musical materials and its overall character.

The listener will imagine the location of the sound sources relative to one

another and to the overall environment. The listener will envision the sound

stage of the recording. In so doing, the entire ensemble will be placed at a

certain distance from the listener, and each individual sound source will be

placed at a distance and at an angle from its perceived location. The relation-

ship of these cues to the potentials of live performances will also deﬁ ne the

aesthetic of the recording in relation to the possibilities of our physical exis-

tence. The recordist must give focused consideration to the makeup of the

sound stage. Crafting the sound stage is the primary opportunity to shape

the aesthetic of the recording and to provide the musical

materials and recording with their spatial dimensions.

The sound stage of the recording might place the sound

sources in locations that purposefully resemble those of

a live performance. In certain recording techniques, the

integrity of this imaging is a primary concern. Certain

stereo microphone techniques are designed to accurately

capture the depth of the sound stage and the lateral loca-

tion of the sound sources. Other techniques accurately

capture the microphone-to-stage distance and stage width.

Multitrack recordings can also deliberately create a sound

stage that recreates the live-performance relationships of

the performers.

The recordist often alters the sound stage to enhance the

musical material. One or several additional microphones

may be used to accent certain members of an ensemble.

The highlighted instruments are given a distance from the

listener, width of image, or a speciﬁ c location that provides

them with more prominence in the musical texture. This can be performed

subtly, so as not to dramatically alter the natural qualities of the recording,

or it can be quite pronounced, depending on the aesthetic of the recording.

Sound stages are created for multitrack recordings and for recordings

made with only (or mostly) synthesized sounds. These recordings were

Listen . . .

to tracks 52 and 53, then 50 and

for the sound stage dimensions of

one mix that simulates the rela-

tionships of a live sound stage and

a second mix of the same musical

balance that signiﬁ cantly alters

the sound stage to unnatural pro-

portions and relationships. Finally

compare those mixes to two stereo

microphone techniques.

The Aesthetics of Recording Production

265

created outside a common environment and with minimal naturally occur-

ring spatial cues captured with the sound sources. The recording is given

spatial cues by the recordist during mixing and signal processing. If not,

the listener’s imagination will generate these relationships. The recordist

will control the sound stage for the recording by crafting the characteristics

of environment(s), distance, and stereo/surround location.

The recordist can provide the sound sources with life-like environments

and place them in natural physical relationships to one another, or they

can purposefully create environmental, distance, and localization cues that

would be impossible in nature.

These concepts have been reinterpreted in two common approaches to mix-

ing for surround sound. The traditional use of the listener’s front ﬁ eld can

still be the focal point of the surround mix. Left/right/center channels can

present the primary materials and be enhanced by placing ambience and

special effects in the rear ﬁ eld. This replicates the observed performance of

traditional music listening experiences. Surround might also approach the

sound ﬁ eld as a 360° environment, where instruments and mix elements

can appear anywhere in the surround-sound ﬁ eld. Listeners are now sur-

rounded by sound sources and may perceive themselves to be within the

music, perhaps even right in the middle of the performance ensemble. This

has the potential to be a strikingly new listening experience.

The sound-stage diagrams of Chapter 9, and Figures 14-1 and 14-2 from

Chapter 14 will help the recordist to craft sound-stage relationships. They

will prove useful in many ways, including evaluating the relationships of

sound sources and keeping track of the locations of sources.

The perceived performance environment plays a large role in determining

the overall sound quality of the recording, and its illusion/reproduction of

the size of the “space” of the recording. The listener’s position in relation

to the sound stage (the stage-to-listener distance) plays a critical role in

the level of intimacy of the recording. The dimensions of the sound stage

can provide great breadth and depth to the recording or can pull a group

of instruments (sound sources) closely together; it provides opportunity to

craft the recording in signiﬁ cant ways, and allows for individual sounds to

be altered for width, location and distance.

Musical Balance and Sound Quality

The interrelationships of musical balance and the differences of sound

quality of sound sources played at different dynamic levels (performance

intensity) are integral parts of live performances, and are easily altered by

the recording process.

Recordings that attempt to capture the aesthetics of the live performance

will seek to capture the musical balance of the performers as they (or the

Chapter 12

266

conductor) intended. The changes in the sound quality of the instruments

will be precisely aligned with changes of dynamic levels in the musical bal-

ance of the ensemble and to changes in musical expression. It is important to

maintain these relationships to keep the character of the live performance.

Recordings that sought to enhance the characteristics of the live perfor-

mance may contain slight changes in musical balance that were not the

result of the performers, but were rather the result of the recording or mixing

process. These alterations will be heard as changes in dynamic levels that

are not supported by changes in the sound qualities of the instrument(s).

This enhancement might take place in only a few instruments, or it may be

used extensively throughout the entire ensemble. This enhancement tech-

nique may be quite subtle and difﬁ cult to detect, or it may be prominent. A

soloist with an orchestra is a common example of when this might occur.

Alterations in dynamic levels, and thus musical balance, that are not aligned

with changes in performance intensities have become integral parts of

music written for recordings. Multitrack mixes frequently exhibit changes in

musical balance that were not caused by the performers. These changes in

dynamic level, then, are inconsistent with the sound qualities of the instru-

ments in the ﬁ nal recording. This enhances the potential of each element

(dynamics and performance intensity/sound quality) to be used individu-

ally in shaping or enhancing the musical material. Further, the expressive

qualities of sound quality/performance intensity can be incorporated into a

mix without the impact of a louder or softer dynamic level than desired.

The relationship between the musical balance and the

timbre of sound sources in many multitrack recordings

creates a wealth of contradictions between reality and

what is heard. The aesthetics of this type of recording

leans toward redeﬁ ning reality with each new project and

is a stark contrast to the aesthetic of trying to capture the

reality of the live performance.

The recordist’s approach to any project should include

a conscious decision on a level of realism. How will the

ﬁ nal sound relate to real-life experiences, and how will the

characteristics of sound be shaped? What is the listener

intended to believe, and how can this be achieved?

The Recording Aesthetic in Relation

to the Performance Event

The recording process will shape music performances in such a way that

the sound qualities and relationships of live performances may be altered.

How the process alters the live listening experience is central to the

aesthetics of the recording.

Listen . . .

to tracks 37 and 38

for the sound quality of the perfor-

mance intensity of the instruments

when they were recorded and how

these coincide with the dynamics in

the two mixes.

The Aesthetics of Recording Production

267

Production-Transparent Recordings

The recording medium is often called upon to be transparent. In these con-

texts, it is the function of the recording to capture the sound as accurately as

possible, to capture the live performance without alteration. This type of aes-

thetic is common for archival recordings that function to document events.

These

production-transparent recordings may or may not be sensitive to

the performance environment. At times, these recordings attempt to capture

the sound of the music performance without considering the artistic dimen-

sion of the relationship of the music (and musicians) and the performance

space (and audience). In other instances, these recordings seek to negate

any inﬂ uence of the performance space on the sound of the recording.

Because these are recordings of live performances, the recordist is not

involved with compiling the performance. The performance takes place in

real time, and it will not be possible to back up and ﬁ x a certain section or

idea. The recordist is primarily concerned with the technical aspects of the

sound of the recording (critical listening) and the sound qualities of the

overall program (at the highest level of perspective).

A limited number of microphones are often used in making this type of

recording. Usually two microphones are used in some appropriate stereo-

microphone technique, placed fairly close to the ensemble. The microphones

generally are sent directly to a two-track (or surround) master, with little or

no signal processing. The recordist will exercise little real-time control over

the quality of the sound and over the shaping of the performance.

The recording medium can also be transparent in documenting a perfor-

mance, while placing the music in a complementary relationship with the

host environment of the performance. Speciﬁ c pieces of music are best

suited to certain environments and are most accurately perceived from cer-

tain listening distances. The artistic message of a speciﬁ c piece of music

will be most effectively communicated in a certain environment and with

the listener at an ideal distance from the ensemble.

Spatially Enhanced Production-Transparent Recordings

Spatially enhanced production-transparent recordings can ensure pieces

of music will be perceived as having been performed in an ideal environ-

ment, with the listener located at an ideal distance from the ensemble,

when listening to the recording. This approach locates the listener at the

ideal seat, and can be accomplished without altering the performance itself

and maintain transparency of the recording process.

The recordist (often with input from a conductor or producer) will deter-

mine the type and amount of inﬂ uence the acoustic performance envi-

ronment will have on the ﬁ nal recording. Microphone selection, choice

of stereo microphone array, and array placement within the performance

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environment are the primary determinants of the envi-

ronment sound that is captured from the performance

environment. Artiﬁ cial reverberation units or other time

processors may sensitively enhance the characteristics

of the environment. The distance of the listener from the

ensemble is determined primarily through microphone

placement and through time processing.

This recording aesthetic attempts to present the music in

the most suitable setting possible for that particular work

and to simulate the listening experience in the concert

hall. This recordist seeks to ensure that the sounds will be

in the same spatial relationships as the live performance,

that the recording process will not alter the balance of the

musical parts, and that the quality of each sound source

will be captured in a consistent manner. In these

live

acoustic recordings, the recording may seek to reproduce

the sound of the performance space—surround sound sys-

tems can be used for great realism in this approach.

This aesthetic can have the recordist more involved with the decision-

making process in some projects than in others. This aesthetic may be used

for many types of music, and may be used for live concert recording as

well as session recording. While it is common in orchestral and other art

music formats, it is equally appropriate for jazz or any other music record-

ings where the performers are reﬁ ned in their sensitivity to and control of

their relationships to the whole ensemble. In session recordings, some (or

much) editing may be a part of this aesthetic. A consistency of sound qual-

ity and spatial relationships between all portions of the work will nearly

always be sought; this is a stark contrast to many multitrack productions.

Enhanced Performances

The recording medium may enhance the performance in widely varying

degrees. This aesthetic may be a slight extension of the concept of a trans-

parent live recording, with the recording process slightly enhancing certain

musical ideas, or this aesthetic may set another extreme of being a life-like

session recording that was recorded out of real time.

This aesthetic simulates a natural listening experience, by capturing or cre-

ating many of the inherent characteristics of a live, unaltered performance.

The timbre and dynamic relationships, spatial cues, and editing techniques

all serve to create the impression that the recording did indeed take place

within reality—as an actual, live performance.

When this aesthetic is an extension of the concept of a transparent live

recording, sounds are placed in the sound stage in the same relative

Listen . . .

to tracks 50, 48 and 49

for a stereo microphone technique

that does little to alter the character

and sound qualities/relationships

of the performance, a mix that es-

tablishes sounds at unnatural re-

lationships, and a mix that adds a

stereo microphone technique to the

unnatural relationships in the mix

of track 48.

The Aesthetics of Recording Production

269

positions as the instruments were in during the recording. The width and

depth of the sound stage and image sizes are realistic, and the record-

ing will usually have a single environmental characteristic applied to the

overall program (a single soloist might be present with a slightly differ-

ent environment). Dynamic changes are nearly always aligned with timbre

(performance intensity) changes, though some microphone highlighting

might create a limited number of dynamic changes without timbre chang-

es. The recording process is used to slightly enhance certain musical ideas

from the live performance.

This aesthetic may be used for controlled live performances (those that

have been rehearsed with the recordist) or in recording sessions, for a wide

variety of musical styles. Minimal miking will usually be used, often an

overall stereo array with a small number of accent microphones (or stereo

pairs). Accent microphones allow this aesthetic to be adaptable to stage

recordings of large classical ensembles or for musical theater and opera.

The recording is usually mixed directly to a two-track (or surround), with

mixing decisions taking place during the rehearsals or during the record-

ing session(s). Recording submixes to a multitrack recorder or DAW is also

common, but many of the decisions related to the sound of the recording

are still accomplished during the recording session or rehearsals.

Recording sessions will often be composed of many takes of large and

small sections of the work. As the ensemble balance is largely controlled

by the performers, and the parts are not singled out (making re-recording

of individual parts unavailable), ensemble problems of accuracy and sound

quality often cause a lengthy recording session and a large set of session

takes.

The master ends up being a collection of a few to many takes. The edit-

ing of these takes becomes an integral part of the recording process. The

best takes are selected based on musical and technical qualities. These are

then edited together (cut and paste) to compile a

perfect performance of

the work. The master or ﬁ nal version represents the ﬁ nal performance. The

goal of this approach is usually to craft the best possible (perfect) perfor-

mance, interpretation, and presentation of the music.

The aesthetic of slightly enhancing the reality of the performance may also

be found in session recordings that simulate natural sound relationships.

Although recorded out of real time, the recordings will seek to simulate

the experience of live music. Some emphasis of certain musical materials

(and/or artistic elements) over others will be unavoidable in the record-

ing process and will diminish the naturalness of the relationships of the

sounds. Some recordings may simulate reality only generally, but still have

a goal of providing the illusion of a naturally occurring performance—even

with the complete control of the multitrack recording (miking, processing,

and mixing) process.

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Created Performances

Music written for the recording medium may have qualities that are

signiﬁ cantly different from live acoustic music. It may be constructed in dif-

ferent ways, and it may contain additional artistic elements. Music written to

be recorded, and especially music written during or through the recording

process, is often composed and/or performed in layers—its performances

created by compiling separately played parts.

The musical materials are often written and recorded one part at a time, or

a small group of parts at a time. The recordings use close miking techniques

that ensure a separation of parts (and thus allow for precise control of

the individual sound source) or will physically isolate the performers/

performances from one another. The parts are continuously compiled on

a multitrack recorder, with each new musical line added to the musical

texture. Players often perform their parts many times; any number of ver-

sions may be recorded before the desired result is achieved. The recordist

(sometimes with the aid of a producer) may be responsible for listening

for performance mistakes, listening for the most interesting and success-

ful performance, keeping track of which portion of which musical part was

performed most accurately, on which take, etc., in addition to maintaining

impeccable sound quality.

The ﬁ nal piece may be a composite of any number of performances, and

it may be a controlled integration of many different musical ideas and per-

sonalities. The performances may or may not have taken place at the same

studio, or during the same day (or year), and the performers may or may

not have met and discussed their musical intentions.

The recording medium can create the illusion of a performance that con-

tains characteristics that cannot exist naturally. This aesthetic has become

common since the early/mid-1960s. In this “new” aesthetic, the record-

ing medium’s unique sound qualities and creative potential are used. It

becomes a musical ensemble with its own set of resources for shaping a

performance or creating a musical composition.

Music written to be recorded may exploit environmental characteristics,

musical balance and sound quality contradictions, sound stage depth and

width, sound source imaging, or its other unique elements to create, deﬁ ne,

or enhance its musical materials.

This aesthetic might purposefully create relationships that cannot exist in

nature—a whisper of a vocalist might be signiﬁ cantly louder than a cymbal

crash. This aesthetic will use the unique qualities of recorded sound in the

communication of the work’s musical message.

Recordings of this aesthetic might seek to create a new reality for each work

or project. Unique relationships of sound are calculated and incorporated

into the music. Recordists (engineers and producers) develop personal

The Aesthetics of Recording Production

271

styles of the ways they shape aspects of balance, imaging, sound stage,

and environment, while continuing to explore the expressive potentials of

recording and the medium’s relationships with reality.

Much of today’s popular music falls within either the aesthetic described

above, or within the aesthetic of using the recording medium to enhance

the illusion of a live performance. Many of the artistic considerations of the

recording process are very apparent in these two aesthetics.

Altered Realities of Music Performance

The reality of the music performance event itself is also altered by the aes-

thetics of the recording production. The recording provides an illusion of

a live performance, and the content and qualities of the perceived music

performance may vary from a slight improvement of our listening realities,

to being a live performance that exists in ways that are impossible in our

known world.

Recording allows a music performance to be an object that can be precisely

polished by the artists, that can exist as an almost indestructible physical

object and held in one’s hands, and that can be owned by any number of

members of the general public.

The reality of a live music performance as an experience witnessed in a

ﬂ eeting instant in time, and as retained only in the memories of those who

experienced the event, is signiﬁ cantly altered by the existence of record-

ings. A recording is a permanent performance of the piece of music—one

that can potentially live well beyond the artist’s lifetime.

Additional pressures, ideals and aesthetics are placed on the artists

responsible for any individual recording, as opposed to a live performance.

A recording may transform the live listening experience: (1) by creating

humanly impossible performances, (2) by providing performance condi-

tions that are inconsistent with reality, (3) by presenting error-free and pre-

cisely crafted performances, and (4) by providing a permanent record of a

music performance.

A recording is a

permanent performance of a piece of music. It is a period

of time that has been created or captured, and that may be preserved for-

ever. The performance can be revisited (and observed at any level of detail)

at any time, and any number of times, and by anybody.

Recordings can often become

deﬁ nitive performances of a piece of music.

The deﬁ nitive performance may be thought of as being either that of a

certain artist or of the particular piece of music. An artist’s performance/

recording of a work might be what is widely accepted as the deﬁ nitive per-

formance (or reference) of how the work exists in its most suitable form,

in relation to performance technique or to the communication of the musi-

cal message. A speciﬁ c recording of a work can also serve as a deﬁ nitive

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reference of how a work exists in its most suitable state, in relation to

recording practice or to musical considerations.

Recordings not only are a means of creating an art form, they also preserve

the artistic ideas of music performance and expression that do not rely on

the recording process. Recordings may permanently preserve the music

performances of an artist. They may provide historical documentation or

archival functions by preserving the music performances of particular art-

ists, ensembles, events, and more—even nature and its sonic landscapes.

The great contradiction of producing a recording that is a permanent record

is that the recording often becomes dated. Artists develop and grow. Their

musical abilities, levels of understanding, artistic sensibilities, and their

musical ideas change. The permanent performance that was previously

created (perhaps only a few weeks before) may no longer be representa-

tive of the artists’ abilities or aesthetic opinions. It can be a snapshot of a

point in time.

The recording will often represent the artists’ and recordist’s idea of a

perfect performance of the work. Theoretically, a perfect performance of

any piece of music can be produced through the recording process. The

deﬁ nition of the perfect performance may vary considerably between per-

formers, but the concept of the recording itself will be similar. It will be a

presentation of what the performers and producer believe to be the most

appropriate interpretation of the piece of music, under the most appropri-

ate performance conditions (instruments used, performance space, etc.).

A perfect performance will combine the artists’ desired interpretation of

the music (and an absence of performance inaccuracies), with an illusion

of the drama of a live concert, and as being experienced at the ideal listen-

ing location of an ideal performance environment for the ensemble and

piece of music. Practical considerations of the recording process might

compromise the actual quality of the recording, but the goal of the record-

ing remains constant.

The recording may present musical ideas, and sound qualities and relation-

ships, that are impossible to create in live performance. Musical materials

may be presented in ways that are beyond the potentials of human execu-

tion. These might be rapid passages performed precisely and ﬂ awlessly,

dynamics and sound-quality expressions that change levels quickly and in

contradictory ways, or the use of a single human voice to perform many dif-

ferent parts. These are only a few of the possibilities. Humanly impossible

performance techniques and relationships are easily created in recording.

The reality of what is humanly possible in a music performance is often

inconsistent with the music performance of the recording. The relationships

of sound sources, the characteristics of sound sources, the interrelation-

ships of musical ideas and artistic elements, and the perceived physical per-

formance of the musical ideas may be such that they could not take place

The Aesthetics of Recording Production

273

in nature. The music performance of the recording may be such that it could

not be accomplished without recording techniques and technologies. It may

be impossible to recreate the music or the performance live, on stage—a sit-

uation often cited as one of the reasons why The Beatles stopped touring.

Recordings have greatly inﬂ uenced our expectations of live music perfor-

mance. The listening audience of a recording becomes accustomed to a

recording as being the perfect performance of a piece of music. The audi-

ence may learn the subtleties of a recording quite intimately.

A particular performance of a piece of music is created or captured in a

music recording. When an audience member owns a copy of the record-

ing, or when a recording has received much exposure through media, the

audience may have listened to a recording many, many times. The record-

ing becomes the deﬁ nitive performance of the music, for some audience

members. The audience will carry this knowledge of the music recording

into a live music concert, and may impose unrealistic expectations onto the

performers and the event.

The artists’ new and different interpretations of the music, the absence of

certain sound qualities from recording production, the inconsistencies of

human performance, or other factors, might create differences between

the live performance and the known recording of a piece of music. A poten-

tial exists for audiences to become less involved with the drama and excite-

ment of the live performance of music. Audiences may attend concerts to

publicly hear live performers and the music performances they have come

to know well as recordings, heard privately many times. Audience mem-

bers do not always accept the reality that the live performance was not the

same as the studio-produced recording. A potential exists for the audience

member to be dissatisﬁ ed that the deﬁ nitive performance they know well

was not reproduced for them at the live event.

An audience may place unrealistic expectations on the performers. Per-

formers may be expected to perform ﬂ awlessly, or with the same version

and interpretation of the work as their released recording. An audience

may expect the performing artist to provide the role of reproducing one

particular performance of the work. By reacting to this audience, the per-

former may be restricted from allowing their interpretation of the music

to evolve and change according to their growing experience, and may be

restricted from creating a more exciting performance. The subtleties of

artistic expression that are possible only through the artist and audience

interaction, along with other unique qualities of live music performance,

may be lost from an event and diminish the musical experience.

It is unrealistic to expect to hear a precise reenactment of a recording in

a live concert environment. Many music recordings have been produced

in such a way that a live performance of all musical parts, sounds, and

relationships is impossible. These are potential negative outgrowths of the

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audience’s familiarity with certain recordings and the new listening habits

afforded by readily available music performances.

The general public hears much more recorded music than live music.

They are often prone to judging live performances with the expectations

of a perfect, recorded performance. Human inaccuracies are sometimes

not easily tolerated, and new musical and expressive interpretations of a

known piece of music may be heard as simply wrong. Further, people own

their own personal copies of performances. A tendency to personalize or

to become attached to those performances is common. When the perfor-

mance is changed, something personal (“their music”) has been altered.

Summary

The recording aesthetic is determined by the relationship of the recording

to the live listening experience. The recording aesthetic is arrived at through

a careful consideration of the musical material, the function of the recording

(type of music recording, sound track, and advertisement) and the desired

ﬁ nal character of the recording. The recordist’s role is deﬁ ned by their con-

tributions (or lack thereof) to the process of making the creative decisions of

the recording, whether making decisions or executing the ideas of others.

The recordist’s overall control of the many qualities of the ﬁ nal music record-

ing is highly variable. The recordist is responsible for the overall characteristics

of the recording and may be in control of (and responsible for) its most min-

ute details, depending on the recording techniques being used. The recordist

might have precise control over shaping or creating a performance, or they

may be engaged in capturing the global aspects of a live performance.

The amount and the types of control used in the recording process will

determine the degree of inﬂ uence the recordist has on the ﬁ nal content of

the music recording. The recording medium may be used to greatly inﬂ u-

ence the sounds being captured by the microphones, or the recording

medium may shape sound much more subtly. The recording process will

be used differently, depending on the particular project.

The aesthetics of recording production vary with the individual, with the musi-

cal material, and with the artistic message and objectives of a certain project.

An aesthetic position or approach may be appropriate for a certain context, or

it may not. An approach might enhance the artist’s conception of the music,

or it may not. An approach may be consistent with other considerations of

the project or the music, or it may not. Perhaps consistency is not desired.

The aesthetic approach to recording production creates a conceptual con-

text of the artistic aspects of recording. The intangible aspects of the art can

then be appreciated within this context. The recordist must clearly deﬁ ne

the aesthetic position of the recording, in order to successfully control and

shape it.

275

13 Preliminary Stages: Deﬁ ning

the Materials of the Project

The preliminary stages of the project will deﬁ ne the musical ideas of the

project, many qualities about the music and the recording, and move

toward making the proper production decisions to best capture or realize

those ideas. Artistic, technical, logistical and conceptual concerns will all be

considered and addressed.

A recording project will start with identifying the music to be recorded. In an

album project, this will often include how the songs in the album relate to

one another, and perhaps some thoughts of song sequencing. Some songs

will ﬁ t the project, and others might not. A song might emerge as a central

theme or an anchor to the project. An overall concept for the album might

begin to emerge; certainly an overall quality will take shape during these

preliminary stages. This overall quality is often not articulated between

those involved, but it is certainly present within their basic understanding

of what the project is trying to communicate or achieve musically.

This overall quality will become focused while making decisions on what

is trying to be accomplished musically—how to best deliver the story of

the text and music. While the composer, artists, producer, and others are

involved in the project and make musical decisions, the recordist needs to

place those musical ideas into the appropriate context of the recording. The

recording process will impact the music and its message, as discussed in

the previous chapter. How this will occur, and the aesthetic of the record-

ing, will be determined at this beginning stage.

The recording process will shape the overall quality of the project and

songs by establishing its overall texture. As discussed above, this is com-

posed of:

• Form

• Perceived performance environment

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• Pitch density

• Program dynamic contour

• Reference dynamic level

• Sound stage (lateral sizes and locations, and distance locations of

sources)

• Listener-to-sound-stage distance and relationship (level of intimacy)

• Environments of sound sources

• Musical balance of sources

• Sound quality

At the preliminary stages, these elements will begin to take shape. Deci-

sions will be made that will inﬂ uence and determine how these elements

will appear in the ﬁ nal recording. Some of these decisions will not be able

to be reversed after tracking has begun.

The recordist will need to consider the project from a variety of perspec-

tives during these preliminary stages. The highest level of perspective will

often be a suitable starting point; the overall concept and overall shape of

the composition, how the song will progress dynamically as it unfolds, its

reference dynamic (intensity) level, etc., as listed above. These consider-

ations will take shape as they are built from the materials and relationships

that exist at lower levels of perspective.

The sound qualities and the relationships of groups of sound sources and

of individual sound sources will shape these overall qualities. For instance,

as the recording is being planned, thoughts of how the lead vocal should

“sound” will emerge. The recordist will formulate a sound in their imagina-

tion that they are trying to obtain; this sound will have the dimensions of

timbre/sound quality, which should include thoughts of environmental char-

acteristics, and it will have performance intensity, a sense of the required

level of intimacy (distance location) to best communicate the message of

the text, a breadth (size) and location of the voice on the sound stage. These

decisions will directly impact the song’s sound stage, pitch density, reference

dynamic level, perceived performance environment, etc. As other sources

or groups of sources are deﬁ ned, the overall qualities are further reﬁ ned.

The sound qualities of all of the sound sources can be captured or crafted in

many ways. Explored below, synthesis techniques and microphone selec-

tion and techniques contribute greatly to this process. The inherent sound

qualities of all devices and processes of the signal chain also contribute to

crafting the sound quality of individual sources, and the overall recording,

and need to be understood and recognized.

Finally, the playback system and the listening environment can alter how

the sound qualities of the recording are heard. Inaccurate recordings can

easily result. At this preliminary stage of the project, it is important to rec-

ognize the characteristics of one’s monitor system. Accurate sound repro-

duction is needed in order to control the recording process, ensure the

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277

quality of the signal, and to accurately recognize and understand the sound

qualities and relationships that are being crafted.

The preliminary, preproduction stage will consider, and work to deﬁ ne:

• The music and its desired qualities,

• The recording aesthetic to best achieve those qualities,

• How the recording process will contribute to shaping the music,

• How the recording process will unfold, and

• The equipment and technologies most suitable to the desired sound

qualities of the project.

Sound Sources as Artistic Resources,

and the Choice of Timbres

The music of a project and the sound sources (voices and instruments) to

perform the music are usually determined for the recordist. Clients usually

dictate what is recorded and who performs. Many subtle decisions on the

selection of or qualities of sound sources are, however, often made during

the preliminary stages of the recording process (and during the produc-

tion process itself). Sound sources are selected, created, or shaped. In all

instances, their selection is an important decision in shaping the sound of

a recording.

Sound sources deliver the materials of the music production. They are vehi-

cles for presenting musical ideas. They must be selected carefully and with

attention to their anticipated roles in the production. Sound sources are often

coupled with the musical ideas themselves; the musical idea and the sound

quality of the source are often melded into a single artistic impression.

In selecting sound sources, decisions are being made as to the most

appropriate timbre to present the musical materials. In doing so, the sound

source is considered in relation to:

• Suitability of its sound quality to the musical ideas,

• Potential to deliver the required creative expression,

• Pitch-area information for anticipated placement in relation to timbral

balance, and

• How it might appear in musical balance, on the sound stage, and with

environmental characteristics.

In making these projections and evaluating sources, the recordist will listen

at a variety of perspectives. Focus will shift from overall qualities of the

source, to its dynamic envelope, spectral content, and spectral envelope, to

perhaps the subtle characteristics of spectrum changes that might appear

when the sound is combined with other sounds, as examples. Sound qual-

ity evaluations performed quickly to make general observations will assist

this process greatly.

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Performers as Sound Sources

Individual performers may be selected because of their unique sound qual-

ities. Individual performers, themselves, are unique sound sources. This is

especially true of vocalists, who are sought for their unique singing voice

and styles, as well as for their speaking voices.

Accomplished instrumental performers that have developed their own

style(s) of playing or that are skilled in performance techniques are also

sought for their unique sound qualities. Individual performers often bring

their own creative ideas and special performance talents to a project, and

considerably aid the deﬁ ning of the sound qualities of the sound sources.

The act of selecting particular performers for a recording is important for

deﬁ ning the sound quality of the sound source down to the minutest detail.

Since the recording is a permanent performance of the piece of music, the

selection of the performers for this performance is often an important con-

sideration in determining the sound qualities of the sound sources.

Creating Sound Sources and Sound Qualities

The sound manipulation and generation techniques of sound synthesis

allow sound sources to be created with the design of new timbres. New

sources can be invented with new sound qualities. Many approaches to

sound synthesis are available; among these are:

• Analog synthesis techniques

• Additive and FM digital synthesis techniques

• Sampling-based synthesis techniques

• Many hybrid (analog + digital + sampling) synthesis techniques (such

as waveshaping, hyper integrated, phase distortion, wavetable, physi-

cal modeling, granular synthesis techniques, etc.)

• DAW virtual instruments and plug-ins

•

Musique concrète techniques

• Recording and performing techniques on sound samplers (sampled

live or with commercially available sound libraries)

The creation of sound sources allows the recordist great freedom in shap-

ing sound qualities. The recordist will be functioning as a

sound designer,

whose goal is to create a sound (with a sound quality) that will most effec-

tively present the musical materials and ideas of the music. Sound sources

that precisely suit the contexts of the sound and the meaning of the music

may be crafted or created by the recordist.

While an examination of the sound synthesis process is out of the scope

of this writing, it is important for the recordist to be aware of the many

creative options afforded by sound synthesis. The study of sound synthesis

from the perspective of building timbres will greatly assist the recordist

Preliminary Stages: Deﬁ ning the Materials of the Project

279

in understanding the components of sound, and how the components of

sound may be used as artistic elements. This process will also help develop

skill in recognizing the subtle qualities of spectrum, spectral envelope, and

dynamic envelope.

It is important to note, by inventing sound sources, the recordist will be

presenting the audience with unfamiliar “instruments.” The sources (new

instruments) may be performing signiﬁ cant musical material. The reality

of the performance has been altered out of the direct experience of the lis-

tener. The recordist will create a new reality of sound relationships or might

emphasize known sound relationships to reestablish known experiences.

These relationships need to be accomplished in such a way as to support

the musical materials and ideas of the recording.

Environmental Characteristics

The human realities of sound relationships are most closely associated

with acoustical environments. The listener will process the characteristics

of the environment within which the sound source is sounding, and the

location of the source within its acoustical environments, to imagine the

reality of the performance. The acoustical environment itself will also func-

tion as a sound quality, shaping the sound source.

Fusion occurs combining the source’s sound quality and environmen-

tal characteristics into a single impression. The selection of environment

therefore may be as important for sound quality concerns as it is for shap-

ing the spatial aspects of the recording.

The recordist needs to be sensitive to the dimensions of environmental

characteristics, as previously covered. How applied environmental charac-

teristics transform the source’s timbre will be evaluated by careful attention

to spectral components, and also to the composite sound quality, by shifts

of perspective. Environmental characteristics can readily mask, distort

or enhance desirable qualities of the original sound; careful attention to

detail is required to create a suitable environment and add an appropriate

amount of the environment to obtain the desired sound.

Nonmusical Sources

Nonmusical concepts often ﬁ nd a place in a music project. As sound sourc-

es, speech and special effects require special consideration.

With speech as a sound source, a particular voice is selected to comple-

ment the meaning of the text and to complement the other sounds in the

musical texture. The voice is carefully selected for the appropriateness of

its sound quality, and thus its dramatic or theatrical impact, to the meaning

of the text to be recited.

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Special effects are sound sources that are used to elicit associated respons-

es or thoughts from the listener. The associated thoughts generated by the

special effects are not directly related to the context of the particular piece

of music. Special effects pull the listener out of the context of the piece of

music, to perceive external concepts or ideas. A horn sound occurring in a

piece of music is an effect, used to elicit the mental image of an automo-

bile. The same sound used as part of the musical material, used to comple-

ment the musical ideas of the work, would not be a special effect, but rather

a musical sound source.

Microphones: The Aesthetic Decisions

of Capturing Timbres

The sound qualities of instruments and voices are shaped, and can be sig-

niﬁ cantly transformed, when captured by a microphone. The selection of

a particular microphone, placing the microphone at a particular location

(within the particular recording environment), and how these complement

the characteristics of the particular sound source will determine the ﬁ nal

sound quality of a recorded sound.

A speciﬁ c microphone will be selected to make a certain recording of a

sound source, because of the ways its performance characteristics com-

plement the sound characteristics of the sound source. This interaction of

the characteristics of the microphone and of the sound source allows the

recordist to obtain the desired sound quality of the recorded sound.

The recordist needs a clear idea of the sound quality sought. With this, the

recordist will determine which microphone is most appropriate by com-

paring the characteristics of the sound quality of the sound source and

the performance characteristics of the microphone, to their vision of the

ﬁ nal sound quality sought. Perhaps no other decision shapes sound quality

more than microphone selection and placement.

A sound source’s sound quality (dynamic envelope, spectrum and spec-

tral envelope), distance location (level of timbral detail), and perhaps envi-

ronmental characteristics (that might be captured from the performance

space) are all determined in this process. In future processes, some aspects

can be altered (such as adding a compressor to alter the sound’s dynamic

envelope), some elements accentuated (such as additional reverberation),

and some elements deleted or attenuated (such as ﬁ ltering out high fre-

quencies). Some qualities must be captured during the initial recording

that cannot be added later—for instance, a high degree of timbral detail

must be captured by appropriate microphone selection and placement dur-

ing the initial recording if the source is to be at a very close distance to the

listener in the ﬁ nal mix, as this detail cannot be created later. The distance

cues of the ﬁ nal sound stage are signiﬁ cantly determined by the timbral

detail captured by the microphones used.

Preliminary Stages: Deﬁ ning the Materials of the Project

281

Microphone placement can be as critical as microphone selection in shap-

ing sound. Where a microphone is placed will be carefully calculated against

the performance characteristics of the microphone and how the instrument/

voice produces its sound. Often placement options are impacted by the

recording environment and unwanted sound qualities, or by isolating the

microphone from sound sources the recordist does not wish to record.

No single microphone will be the best microphone for every sound source or

for the same source for every piece of music. The microphones selected for

recording the same sound source may vary widely depending on the above

circumstances, the desired sound, and what microphones are available.

Performance Characteristics

All microphones can be evaluated by their performance characteristics.

These characteristics are information on how the microphone will consis-

tently respond to sound. Thus, through these characteristics, the recordist

can anticipate how the microphone will transform the sound quality of the

sound source while it is being recorded.

As the microphone alters the sound source, it has the potential to contrib-

ute positively in shaping the artistic elements. If the recordist is in con-

trol of the process of selecting the appropriate microphone for the sound

source and conditions of the recording, the selection and applications of

microphones can be a resource for artistic expression. The artistic elements

of the recording can be captured (recorded) in the desired form, and the

microphone and its placement will become part of the artistic decision-

making process.

A number of microphone performance characteristics are most prominent

in shaping the sound quality. These characteristics are of central concern in

determining the artistic results of selecting these microphones for certain

sound sources. These microphone performance characteristics are:

• Frequency response

• Directional sensitivity

• Transient response

• Distance sensitivity

Subtle transformations of the source’s sound qualities take place during

this process. The listener should compare the sound of the instrument in

the recording room to the sound of the signal in the control room to hear

these differences. Focus on dynamic envelope, spectrum, spectral enve-

lope and proportions of direct-to-reverberant sound changes will reveal

many of these microphone performance characteristics. The recordist will

ultimately learn the “sound” of speciﬁ c microphones, and learn how to use

them to their best advantage.

Chapter 13

282

Frequency Response

Frequency response is a measure of how the microphone responds to the

same sound level at different frequencies. Amplitude differences at various

frequencies can appear at the microphone’s output and deﬁ ne the sensitiv-

ity of the microphone to frequency.

The frequency response of a microphone often has frequency bands that

the microphone accentuates or attenuates. The matching of a sound source

with similar frequency characteristics may or may not provide the recordist

with the desired sound. The microphone may cause accentuation of cer-

tain characteristics of the sound source, and perhaps a microphone with

somewhat opposite frequency characteristics as the sound source will be a

more appropriate choice. Again, this decision is dependent upon the ﬁ nal,

desired sound. Figure 13-1 presents a frequency response for a hypotheti-

cal microphone that slightly emphasizes the frequency band from approxi-

mately 2 kHz to 5.5 kHz, and attenuates frequencies below 100 Hz and above

12 kHz.

Microphone frequency response adds new formant regions to the sound

source. The frequencies emphasized and/or attenuated by the microphone

act on all sounds equally, regardless of pitch level. Microphone frequency

response directly shapes, contributes to, and captures the spectrum of the

sound source.

Figure 13-1

Frequency

response of a hypo-

thetical microphone.

20 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10k 20k

Frequency in Hertz

Relative Response in Decibels

+ 9

+ 6

+ 3

− 3

− 6

− 9

Directional Sensitivity

Microphones do not capture sounds equally that arrive at different angles

to its diaphragm. The

directional sensitivity of a microphone is its sensitiv-

ity to sounds arriving at various angles to the diaphragm. The

polar pattern

of a microphone depicts the sensitivity of a microphone to sounds at vari-

ous frequencies in front, in back, and to the sides, and the actual pattern is

Preliminary Stages: Deﬁ ning the Materials of the Project

283

spherical around the microphone (Figure 13-2). Directional response mea-

sures the microphone’s sensitivity to sounds arriving from angles, but cal-

culates this sensitivity at only a few frequencies (Figure 13-3).

Figure 13-2

Polar

pattern spheres and

the microphone axis.

Off-Axis

Side View:

On-Axis

Floor

Off-Axis

(angle of sound arrival)

90º

View from Above:

On-Axis

0º

Figure 13-3

Polar

pattern sensitivity at

various frequencies.

0º

30º

60º

90º

120º

150º

180º

210º

240º

270º

300º

330º

125 Hz

1000 Hz

4000 Hz

8000 Hz

12,500 Hz

Chapter 13

284

Sounds directly in front of the microphone diaphragm are considered to be

on-axis. Sounds deviating from this 0º point on the polar curve are consid-

ered

off-axis and are plotted in relation to the on-axis reference level. The

frequency response of most microphones will vary markedly to sounds at

different angles. Even microphones that show no pronounced frequency

areas of accentuation or attenuation (ﬂ at frequency response) on-axis will

show an altered frequency response at the sides and the back of the polar

pattern (Figures 13-3 and 13-4).

Figure 13-4

Frequency

response of a hypo-

thetical cardioid

microphone on-axis

(0º) and off-axis 180º

and 90º.

20 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10k 20k

Frequency in Hertz

− 10

− 20

− 30

Response in Decibels

0º

90º

180º

These variations in frequency response at different angles are commonly

called off-axis coloration. This coloration alters sound-source spectrum just

as on-axis frequency response accentuates and attenuates speciﬁ c frequen-

cy bands. These changes are more pronounced at or towards the attenuat-

ed angles of the microphone patterns. In the intermediate angles between

directly on-axis and the dead areas of directional patterns, a slight change

in the angle/direction of the microphone can make a substantial difference

in the frequency response of the captured sound source. Frequencies above

4 kHz are usually most dramatically altered by slight angle changes.

The amount of off-axis coloration is an important measure of the micro-

phone’s suitability to a variety of situations. This is especially pronounced

in stereo microphone-array recording techniques. Instruments at the edges

of the array’s pick-up pattern and the reverberant sound of the hall will

arrive at the array mostly from angles that are off-axis. The sound qualities

of those instruments and of the reverberant energy may be altered sig-

niﬁ cantly by the off-axis coloration. Off-axis coloration has the potential to

have a profound impact on the sound qualities of the recording.

Preliminary Stages: Deﬁ ning the Materials of the Project

285

Transient Response

Microphones do not immediately track the waveform of a sound source. A

certain amount of time is required before the applied energy is transferred

into movement of the microphone’s diaphragm. Also, a certain amount of

acoustic energy must be applied to initiate this movement, and some of this

energy (which is the sound wave of the sound source) can be dissipated in

the action of getting the diaphragm moving. Diaphragm mass inhibits tran-

sient response, making condenser and ribbon microphones more accurate

than even the highest quality dynamic microphones.

Thus, microphones have different response times before they will begin to

accurately track the waveform of the sound source. This

transient response

time distorts the initial, transient portions of the sound’s timbre. Slow tran-

sient response is most noticeable when the microphone is applied to a

sound source that has a fast initial attack time (in the dynamic envelope)

and a large amount of spectral energy during the onset.

Figure 13-5 is a comparison of the transient response of typical condens-

er and dynamic microphones. It shows the condenser microphone traces

the initial transient of the sound more accurately than the dynamic micro-

phone. The rest of the signal is reproduced at about the same accuracy by

either microphone, and is lower in frequency and amplitude. In this way,

transient response is often related to frequency response.

Figure 13-5

Transient

response of typical

condenser and dy-

namic microphones.

Dynamic

Microphone

Condenser

Microphone

10 µV

50 µs

Transient response is a microphone performance characteristic that is not

included in the manufacturer speciﬁ cation information that accompanies

promotional literature and owner’s manuals. Further, it is not calculated

Chapter 13

286

by a standard of measurement. It exists as an alteration of the original

waveform’s initial attack time in both the dynamic envelope and the spec-

tral envelope.

The developed hearing of the recordist can only be used to judge this

microphone characteristic. The recordist must become aware of differences

in timbre that are present in the early time ﬁ eld of the captured (recorded)

sound source, as compared with the live sound source. These differences

are identiﬁ ed through the critical-listening process and are vitally impor-

tant to the recordist. Recognizing and understanding how the transient

response is altering the source’s sound quality will allow the recordist to be

in control of capturing and shaping the sound as desired.

Two microphones with identical frequency-response curves may have very

different sound characteristics caused by different transient response times.

Distance Sensitivity

All microphones will respond differently to the same sound source, at the

same distance and angle. The ability of each microphone to capture the

detail of a source’s timbre will be different. Microphones will have differ-

ent sensitivities in relation to distance. The

distance sensitivity of a micro-

phone is often inﬂ uenced by the polar response of the microphone and/or

its transduction principle (condenser, moving coil, ribbon, etc.).

Directional patterns often are able to capture timbral detail of a sound source

at a greater distance than an omnidirectional microphone. This is primarily

the result of the ratio of direct to indirect sound, and a masking of timbre

detail, but it may also be attributed to the transduction principle, depend-

ing on the particular circumstances. Similarly, condenser microphones will

have a tendency towards greater distance sensitivity than dynamic micro-

phones, due to their more sensitive transfer of energy. Many times a micro-

phone with a small-sized diaphragm will have greater distance sensitivity

than a microphone with a larger diaphragm, all other factors being equal.

The concept of the distance sensitivity (sometimes called “reach”) of a

microphone is an important one. Recordists must also judge this micro-

phone characteristic through acute listening and experience. They must

become aware of differences in timbre detail that are present between the

miked sound source and the live sound source. Distance sensitivity is a

microphone performance characteristic that is not included in the manu-

facturer-speciﬁ cation information, although it might be measured scientiﬁ -

cally if an appropriate scale were devised. Distance sensitivity is a charac-

teristic that must be learned from experience and must be anticipated for

the individual environment and recording conditions.

Preliminary Stages: Deﬁ ning the Materials of the Project

287

Microphone Placement

Many variables must be considered during the process of selecting and

placing microphones. The primary variables for microphone selection were

presented above. The variables of

microphone placement will directly inﬂ u-

ence the selection of a microphone, even after an initial selection has been

made. The placement of the microphone in relation to the sound source

and the performance environment will greatly inﬂ uence the sound quality

of the recording. At times, this inﬂ uence may be as great as the selection

of the microphone itself.

The recordist must consider the following when deciding on placing the

microphone in relation to the sound source:

• How sound is produced by and how it radiates from the sound source

• Distance relationships between the microphone, the sound source,

and the reﬂ ective surfaces of the recording environment (performance

space)

• Distance of the microphone from the sound source to be recorded and

other sound sources in the performance space

• Height and lateral position of the microphone in relation to the sound

source

• Angle of the microphone’s axis to the sound source

• Performance characteristics of the microphone selected, as altered by

the above four considerations

Microphone placement interacts with microphone perfor-

mance characteristics to create the recorded sound qual-

ity of the source. The distance of the microphone will be

largely determined by the distance sensitivity of the micro-

phone. The angle of the microphone will be largely deter-

mined by the frequency response of the microphone in

relation to its polar pattern, the characteristics of how the

sound source projects its sound, and the characteristics of

the environment. The height of the microphone is also a

result of the directional characteristics of the sound source

(as instruments radiate different spectral information in dif-

ferent directions), the environment, and the microphone’s

frequency response and distance sensitivity.

Controlling the Sound of the Performance Space

The sound characteristics of the studio or performance space can be captured

in recording the sound source. The recordist may or may not wish to include

the sound of this space as part of the sound quality of the sound source. In

either instance, the recordist must be in control of the indirect sound of the

environment arriving at the microphone from reﬂ ective surfaces.

Listen . . .

to tracks 39-41

for differences in the sound quality

of the three recordings of the same

performance; these differences are

all due to microphone selection

(performance) and placement con-

siderations.

Chapter 13

288

The recordist may seek to record the sound of the sound source within its

performance environment. For this to happen, there must be a control of

the balance of direct and indirect sound. Through the selection and place-

ment of a microphone with a suitable polar pattern and distance sensitiv-

ity, the desired characteristics of the environment may be captured, in the

desired amount, along with the sound of the sound source. The distance

cues of the initial reﬂ ections in the early time ﬁ eld and the amount of timbre

detail will be evaluated and weighed against the ratio of direct to indirect

sound. Distance and angle of the microphone will be adjusted to achieve

the desired sound. When this technique is used, individual sources must be

well separated or recorded separately in order to be isolated.

The recordist’s objective may be to capture the sound source without the

cues of the environment. The sound source may be physically isolated (with

portable bafﬂ es—gobos—or in isolation booths) from other, unwanted

sounds from the environment and other sources, or the leakage of unwant-

ed sounds to the recording microphone might be minimized with micro-

phone pattern selection and microphone placement. This is accomplished

through close miking techniques and direct inputs. It allows the ﬂ exibility

of being in complete control of the sound source, with environmental char-

acteristics later applied to the sound through signal processing.

Capturing the sound of the environment will be controlled by the relation-

ships of the microphone to the sound source and any other sound sources

that may be occurring simultaneously, including the sound of the environ-

ment itself.

Reﬂ ective Surfaces

The reﬂ ective surfaces of the environment (or of any object in the environ-

ment) can cause the sound at the microphone to be unusable. Interference

problems may be created when the sound from a reﬂ ective surface and the

direct sound reach the microphone at comparable amplitudes. The slight

time delay between the two sounds will cause certain frequencies to be

out-of-phase (with cancellation of those frequencies) and certain frequen-

cies to be in-phase (with reinforcement of those frequencies).

The frequencies that will be accentuated and attenuated can be deter-

mined by the difference of the distance between the reﬂ ective surface and

the microphone (

), and the distance between the sound source and the

microphone (

), in relationship to air velocity. The amount of reinforce-

ment and cancellation of certain frequencies that will occur when the two

signals are combined will be determined by their amplitudes. Constructive

and destructive interference are most pronounced when the two signals

are of equal amplitudes. As the difference in amplitude values between the

two signals becomes larger, the effect becomes less noticeable.

Preliminary Stages: Deﬁ ning the Materials of the Project

289

Figure 13-6

Distances

between microphone,

sound source and

reﬂ ective surfaces.

The constructive and destructive interference of the combined signals

results in a frequency response with emphasized and attenuated frequen-

cies (peaks and dips). These peaks and dips of the frequency response curve

of the sound’s spectrum have been compared, in analogy, to the tines of a

comb. Thus, the term

comb ﬁ lter has been applied when a signal is com-

bined with itself, with a slight time delay between the two signals.

Microphone Positioning

The distance of the microphone to the sound source will alter the sound

quality of the recorded sound source. It will also be altered by the dis-

tance of the microphone to other sound sources in the environment, along

with the height, lateral position, and angle of the microphone. These are

variables that may be used as creative elements in shaping sound qual-

ity (and the musical material), in the same way as microphone selection.

These positioning variables will most signiﬁ cantly inﬂ uence the following

aspects of sound:

• Environmental characteristics (and secondary distance) cue—ratio of

direct to reﬂ ected sound

• Environmental characteristics cue—early time-ﬁ eld information created

by initial reﬂ ections

• Distance cue (deﬁ nition or amount of timbral detail)

• Capturing of the blend and shaping the overall quality of the source’s

timbre

The distance from the microphone to the sound source is the primary

factor that controls the ratio of direct to reﬂ ected (indirect) sound. As the

Chapter 13

290

microphone is placed closer to the sound source, the proportion of direct

sound increases in relation to reﬂ ected sound.

Reﬂ ective surfaces that are located near the sound source will cause incon-

sistencies with this general rule. If at all possible, sound sources should

be placed at least three times the distance of any reﬂ ective surface, as the

distance from the microphone to the sound source. The height and angle

of the microphone in relation to the sound source, coupled with its polar

pattern, may allow the microphone to keep from picking up the reﬂ ected

sound off surfaces close to the sound source.

Distance cues can be established by microphone placement when an audible

amount of sound from the recording environment is present in the source’s

sound quality. While this is not usually the case with close-miked sound

sources, many sound sources in multitrack projects are recorded from a dis-

tance that will capture certain information from the recording environment.

All distant miking techniques will capture a signiﬁ cant amount of the per-

formance environment’s sound.

Recordings made with a moderate distance between the microphone

and the sound source will likely have prominent reﬂ ection information in

the early time ﬁ eld. The ﬂ oor and objects immediately around the sound

source will create reﬂ ections that arrive at the microphone at a similar time

to the direct sound. While only a few reﬂ ections may be present in the ﬁ nal

sound, and the reﬂ ections may be of signiﬁ cantly lower amplitude than the

direct sound, they will impart important environment information. These

reﬂ ections can provide environmental cues that could distort a reverb pro-

gram applied to the sound.

Microphone placement location and performance characteristics will play

vital roles in establishing distance cues, through deﬁ ning the amount of tim-

bre detail present in the recorded sound source. This is important to remem-

ber, especially if placing a source in “proximity” is planned. This timbral detail

must be captured in the recording process, as it cannot be created later.

Generally, the recorded sound source will have greater timbral detail the

closer the microphone to the sound source and/or the more sensitive the

microphone in terms of distance sensitivity and transient response. This

provides a distance cue that may place the listener of the recorded sound

near the reproduced image of the recording, sometimes unnaturally near

the source. This level of timbral detail directly establishes the level of inti-

macy of the recording. The depth of sound stage will also be greatly deter-

mined through these cues.

Distance cues are often contradictory when a high degree of timbre detail

and a large amount of reverberant energy are present simultaneously. This

unrealistic sound may be desired for artistic purposes, and has been used

to great effect.

Preliminary Stages: Deﬁ ning the Materials of the Project

291

The sound quality of the sound source may potentially be altered by close

microphone placements. As above, these alterations can be used to cre-

ative advantage, or they can interfere with obtaining the desired sound

quality. The sound quality may exhibit the following alterations when the

source is close miked:

• An increase of deﬁ nition over known, naturally occurring degrees of

timbre detail

• Changed spectral content of the sound source

• An unnatural blend of the source’s timbre, caused when the source has

not had enough physical space to develop into its characteristic sound

quality

• Noises from the performer or from the instrument

A cardioid or bidirectional microphone placed within two feet of a sound

source may have an altered frequency response, and thereby alter the

source’s spectral content. This altered frequency response of certain micro-

phones is the

proximity effect. The response in the low-frequency range

rises relative to response in higher frequencies. Figure 13-7 demonstrates

the low-frequency boost of a sound source at 1 inch (dotted line) compared

to the source at 24 inches.

Figure 13-7

Altered

frequency response

of a sound source at

1 inch from micro-

phone caused by the

proximity effect.

Frequency in Hertz

Relative Response in Decibels

Proximity Effect

+10

−10

50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10k

24"

Performers and their instruments can create undesirable noises, causing

difﬁ culties in obtaining a desirable sound.

Blend

The sound source and the way it radiates sound must be considered in

relation to the sound’s environment. All sound sources radiate sound in a

unique way. A polar pattern similar to a microphone’s is created as sources

radiate different frequency response curves in different directions.

Chapter 13

292

Sound sources require physical space for the sound quality to develop and

coalesce. The sound quality of instruments and voices is a combination of

all of the sounds they produce. When a microphone is placed in a physical

location near a source, it can be within this critical distance necessary for the

sound to develop into its characteristic single sound wave. The sound source

might not have the opportunity to

blend into its unique, overall sound qual-

ity. The microphone might capture only a portion of the sound. This result-

ing sound quality can be very different from how the sound source exists

in acoustic environments. It is important that the recordist be aware of this

space and in control of recording the desired blend of the source’s sound.

Generally sounds need several feet of space for their sound quality to form.

This distance is too far for a microphone placement that would isolate the

source from other sources performing at the same time. Close microphone

techniques change the sound quality of sources, sometimes markedly. This

can be used for great creative advantage, or to the detriment of the proj-

ect. Often several close microphones are used on a single instrument to

“manufacture” the blend of an instrument, and to maintain the isolation

of sound sources. Various parts of the source’s sound are blended by the

recordist instead of relying on the sound source’s natural blend. Pianos

are commonly recorded in this way. This concept can be applied to many

sound sources such as the enclosed CD’s cello and guitar tracks.

Stereo and Surround Microphone Techniques

Stereo and surround microphone arrays are composed of two or more

microphones (or diaphragm assemblies) in a systematic arrangement. They

are designed to record sound in such a way that upon playback (through

two channels or surround) a certain sense of the spatial relationships of the

sound sources present during the recorded performance is reproduced.

These techniques have the potential to accurately capture the sound quali-

ties of the live performance and of the hall, the performed balance of the

instruments of the ensemble, and the spatial relationships of the ensemble

(location and distance cues), with minimal alteration but with subtle and

unique qualities.

Many microphone techniques have been developed. Among the most com-

monly used stereo techniques are:

•

X-Y coincident techniques

• Middle-side technique (M-S)

• Blumlein

X-Y (crossed ﬁ gure-eights)

• Near-coincident techniques (NOS and ORTF)

• Spaced omnidirectional microphones

• Spaced bidirectional microphones

• Binaural system (artiﬁ cial head)

• Sound ﬁ eld and other specialized microphones and systems

Preliminary Stages: Deﬁ ning the Materials of the Project

293

Among common surround microphone techniques are:

• Sound ﬁ eld microphone (coincident array)

• Schoeps Spherical Array (near-coincident array)

• Four coincident cardioids, coincident array

• Four spaced cardioids, surround ambience microphone array

• Sound Performance Lab Array, ﬁ ve multipatterned spaced microphones

• Frontal arrays, plus ambience microphones

Stereo and surround microphone techniques are often used in recording

large ensembles, in large acoustic spaces, and from a rather distant place-

ment. The techniques are very powerful in their accuracy and ﬂ exibility, and

may be applied to either a single sound source or to any sized ensemble.

They may be used from a rather distant placement (perhaps 15 or more

meters, depending on the pertinent variables), to within about a meter of

the sound source. Close placements of stereo arrays are commonly applied

to drum sets, for example, sometimes supplemented with accent micro-

phones, sometimes not.

Stereo and surround microphone techniques can be

thought of as a preprocessing of the recorded sound.

Preprocessing is the altering of the sound source’s sound

quality before it reaches the routing and mixing stages of

the recording chain. Microphone techniques will add and

capture spatial information to the recording.

Microphone arrays can signiﬁ cantly alter the sound source

in a number of ways. All stereo and surround microphone

techniques have their own unique characteristics and their

own inherent strengths and weaknesses. The inherent

sound qualities of the microphone arrays can be used to great advantage if

the recordist understands and is in control of their sound qualities.

The following artistic elements are created or captured, with varying char-

acters and realism, by the stereo and surround techniques listed above. By

evaluating the sound qualities of each of the various arrays, their unique

qualities can be learned.

• Perceived listener-to-sound-stage distance

• mount and sound quality of the environmental characteristics of the

performance space

• Perceived depth of the ensemble, sound source, and/or sound stage

• Perceived width of the sound source or the sound stage

• Deﬁ nition and stability of phantom images and distance imaging

• Musical balance of the sound sources in the ensemble

• Sound qualities of the entire ensemble or of speciﬁ c sources within the

ensemble

The microphone placement variables are also factors in microphone tech-

niques, as they determine where the array is to be placed. Placement of the

Listen . . .

to tracks 50 and 51

for unaltered stereo microphone

technique recordings.

Chapter 13

294

array will considerably impact the quality of sound, as will the microphones

selected for the microphone array, as they impart their own unique sound

characteristics, as described above. Matching speciﬁ c microphones (type of

transducer or model/manufacturer) to the stereo or surround microphone

array is also important in ensuring the effectiveness of the array’s capturing

the desired sound qualities of the performance.

The aesthetic approach to the project will guide how the microphone tech-

nique is selected and used. Techniques can provide a clear documentation

of a performance, can enhance a performance, and can impart signiﬁ cant

and unique characteristics to a recording.

The recordist will often envision an

ideal seat for the performance when

determining the placement of a microphone array. This type of placement

of the array will seek the sound qualities that are most desirable for the

particular ensemble, performing a speciﬁ c piece of music in the perfor-

mance space. The recordist will seek to balance the hall sound with that

of the ensemble, capture an appropriate amount of timbre deﬁ nition from

the ensemble, retain all performed dynamic relationships, and establish

desirable and stable spatial relationships in the sound stage. The balance of

the total energy of the direct sound and that of the reverberant sound will

be carefully considered in determining the placement of the microphone

array. The point where the two are equal has been identiﬁ ed as the

criti-

cal distance. The recordist will focus on this ratio of the reﬂ ected to direct

sound to identify a desired balance.

Accent microphones are often used to supplement stereo and surround

microphone techniques. These are microphones that are dedicated to cap-

turing a single sound source, or a small group of sound sources, within

the total ensemble being recorded by the array. The accent

microphones are placed much closer to the sound sources

than the array and may cause the recordist to consider

some of the close miking variables discussed above.

Accent microphones are most often used to complement

the array. They assist the overall array by bringing more

dynamic presence and timbre deﬁ nition to certain sound

sources in the ensemble, and they allow the recordist

some control over the musical balance of the ensemble.

Accent microphones also create noticeable time differenc-

es between the arrival of the sound source(s) at the stereo

array, and the arrival of the sound source(s) at the accent

microphone.

Adding accent microphones will diminish the realistic

sound qualities of the microphone technique. The sound relationships of

the performance will be altered by the dynamics, sound quality, and dis-

tance cues added by the accent microphone(s). The microphone array’s

Listen . . .

to track 50 and 37

for an accent microphone added

to a stereo microphone technique:

track 50 is an ORTF recording of

drum set, track 37 adds an accent

microphone to the ORTF recording

of track 50.

Preliminary Stages: Deﬁ ning the Materials of the Project

295

ability to accurately capture the performance will be diminished by using

accent microphones to alter the sound present in the performance hall.

Equipment Selection: Application

of Inherent Sound Quality

All recording/reproduction devices impart a unique sonic imprint on the

sound. As was discussed with microphones above, individual recorders,

mixing consoles, signal processors, analog-to-digital converters, and any

other devices in the signal chain all have unique sound qualities, which are

the result of their performance characteristics. This extends to all software

that acts upon sound such as functions within DAWs, plug-ins, etc. They

all modify the original signal; some do this almost imperceptibly, and oth-

ers quite profoundly. Any individual device will be evaluated for how it

transforms the frequency, amplitude, and time components of the original

signal. The modiﬁ cations of the original signal caused by the basic perfor-

mance characteristics of a device (real or virtual) create its

inherent sound

quality. Further, different technologies have distinct sound characteristics,

or the potential to display or produce certain characteristics.

In deﬁ ning the materials of the project, the speciﬁ c pieces of recording

equipment to realize the desired sound qualities of the individual sound

sources and the project’s overall sound need to be determined. The record-

ist can approach this problem directly by evaluating and understanding the

inherent sound characteristics of the available individual devices, and the

inherent sound characteristics of the technologies of those devices, against

the unique needs of the individual project. A compatible match will be

sought for the device, technology, and sound source to arrive at a desired

sound quality.

Just as with evaluating microphone characteristics, the recordist’s focus

must shift between critical and analytical listening purposes at a variety

of perspectives in order to evaluate the sound qualities of devices. Careful

evaluation out of context of a recording will allow traits to be evaluated

most easily. This process can be applied to evaluating the sonic differences

between any technologies, devices, or software available for the project.

Technology Selection: Analog versus Digital

The debate over the superiority of analog and digital devices and their

inherent sound qualities, and other characteristics, continues to linger.

Decades of debate and technological advancements have shown both for-

mats can produce stunning recordings, with some unique qualities and

with many similar qualities, both positive and negative.

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Digital recording, processing, and editing equipment is not necessar-

ily “better” than analog equipment, nor is the opposite true. Both have

great potential for artistic expression, and both can generate recordings of

impeccable quality. No technology is inherently better-suited than anoth-

er for generating, capturing, shaping, mixing, processing, combining, or

recording sound. Some devices may have functional features that are more

attractive to an individual recordist, and some people develop personal

sound preferences. These are, however, matters of taste. Technologies are

simply different in how they sound, how they retain the original signal

characteristics, and how they alter the sound source.

Analog technology has certain inherent sound characteristics. Digital tech-

nology has certain inherent sound characteristics. The characteristics of one

technology may or may not be appropriate for a particular project. Inherent

sound qualities are inherent sound deﬁ ciencies if they work against the

sound quality the recordist is trying to obtain. Inherent sound qualities are

desirable if they produce the sound quality the recordist is looking for.

It is difﬁ cult to make generalizations as to the characteristics of analog ver-

sus digital technology. The sound qualities of both technologies vary widely

depending on the particular unit and the integrity of the audio signal within

the particular devices. An 8-bit digital system is signiﬁ cantly less accurate

and ﬂ exible than a 32-bit system. A consumer-model analog system is sig-

niﬁ cantly noisier and less accurate than a professional recorder with high-

end noise reduction.

Differences often exist between the two technologies in:

• Accurately tracking the shape of the waveform (especially the initial

transients of the sound wave, in both technologies)

• Processing all frequencies equally well (especially frequency response

linearity in analog or quantization issues in digital)

• Storing the waveform without distortion from the medium (especially

tape noise ﬂ oor or A/D and D/A conversion accuracy)

• Altering the waveform in precise increments and precisely repeating

these functions (a measure of signal processors)

• Performing repeated playing, successive generations of copying, and

long-term storage with minimal signal degradation (a measure of

recording formats)

• Noise and distortion added to the signal

Many other, more subtle, differences exist, especially between speciﬁ c

devices of each technology.

Selecting Devices and Models

No recording device is inherently “better” than another similar device.

While certain devices might be more ﬂ exible than others, and certain

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297

devices are certainly of higher technical quality than others, the primary

artistic concern for selecting a piece of equipment is its suitability to the

particular needs of the project, at a given point in time.

The advantages of any particular device in one application may be a dis-

advantage in another. The sound quality of one device may be appropriate

to one musical context, and not to another. The measure of the device will

be in how its inherent sound qualities can be used to obtain the desired

sound qualities of the recording. Pieces of recording equipment should be

evaluated for their sound qualities, and their potential usefulness in com-

municating the artistic message in the piece of music. This evaluation is

performed through a critical-listening process similar to that used to evalu-

ate microphone performance characteristics.

Recording equipment (including computers) and software are tools. The

tools may be applied to any task, with consistent results. The recordist

needs to decide if the particular tool (device or software) is the appropriate

one to craft the sound quality that is required of the particular project.

Musicians often carry with them a number of musical instruments. They

will use a different model of the same instrument (perhaps made by a dif-

ferent manufacturer) to obtain a different sound quality of their perfor-

mance, depending on what is required by the musical material. The record-

ist should recognize this is similar to their situation.

In selecting recording equipment, the recordist is, in essence, selecting a

musical instrument. The sound quality of sound sources, or of the entire

recording, may be markedly transformed by the piece of equipment, while

the sound is under the control of the recordist. This is the way a traditional

musical instrument is applied by a traditional performer.

Recordists will develop sound-quality preferences and working preferenc-

es for particular pieces of equipment, and perhaps for a particular technol-

ogy. Developing such preferences may or may not be artistically healthy.

The recordist may become inclined to consider a certain technology to be

“better” than another simply because it is the one they are most familiar

with, not because it is the one that is most appropriate for the project. Per-

sonal preferences (or personal experiences) might become confused with

the actual quality or usefulness of a device or a technology.

In contrast, one’s own “sound” can result by developing one’s own produc-

tion preferences and sound quality preferences. Equipment selection will

contribute much to this when a recordist has strong preferences to use cer-

tain devices; how the recordist shapes the artistic elements will also play

a signiﬁ cant role. A person’s own sound is developed over time, and after

considerable experience. How a recordist handles the mix process and the

ﬁ nal dimensions of the recording ultimately deﬁ ne their “sound.”

In summary, audio devices have inherent sound qualities that are deter-

mined by technology and the device’s unique performance characteristics.

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The recordist will be using these devices to shape the sound of the music

recording. Learning the inherent sound qualities of as many devices as

possible will increase the creative tools of the recordist, and provide them

with more options in obtaining the sound they want. These devices are the

musical instruments that are used to craft the mix, the recording.

Monitoring: The Sound Quality of Playback

During these preliminary stages, the recordist must decide on how the record-

ing process will be monitored. Monitoring most often takes place in a record-

ing control room—whether a commercial facility, a home studio, a closet at a

remote location, or something else. All of the sounds and relationships of the

project are presented to the recordist through the playback system.

The monitor system is much more than a pair of loudspeakers. In terms of

hardware, it includes power ampliﬁ er(s), loudspeaker drivers, crossover

networks, loudspeaker enclosures and even connector cables. The monitor

system also encompasses the listening room itself; the placement of the

loudspeakers in the room, and the interactions of the room and the loud-

speakers become part of the sound quality of the monitor system.

The monitor system has the potential to transform all sound qualities and

relationships in the recording. The system must not considerably alter the

original signal, or at the very least the recordist must know how the sound

is being altered. The monitor system needs to accurately reproduce the

spatial qualities and the frequency, amplitude and time information of the

recording.

If recordists are to be in control of the recording process, they must be able

to evaluate the recording itself, not the recording modiﬁ ed by the monitor

system. The recording will only have the same qualities in another (neutral)

listening environment if the sound quality is not originally altered through

the recordist’s system.

The most desirable monitoring system is transparent. The playback system

reproduces sound while interacting with the control room acoustics with-

out altering the quality of sound. In actual practice this is nearly impos-

sible. Still, sound alterations caused by monitor systems can be minimized.

High-quality audio systems can be assembled and appropriately located in

suitable environments to provide excellent sound reproduction.

The following considerations must be factored into establishing an accu-

rate monitor system:

• High-quality playback system

• Loudspeaker and control room interaction

• Effective listening zone

• Sound ﬁ elds: direct/near ﬁ eld versus room monitoring

• Monitoring levels

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High-Quality Playback System

The playback system for accurate monitoring will be of high quality and

carefully engineered. It is designed to provide unaltered, detailed sound,

while working within the acoustic characteristics of a control room or simi-

lar environment. It is inherently different from systems intended for home

use (even high-end systems intended for the audiophile market).

Most consumer playback systems seek to blend sound in pleasing ways and

alter the sound with characteristics consumers (or certain segments of the

general public) might enjoy; they often seek to smooth out imperfections

in recordings and remove timbral detail that may be startling to listeners.

The purpose and function of a pro audio playback system is very different.

It seeks to provide the recordist with extreme clarity and detail of sound,

minimizing any added fusion of sound elements. While it is common for

some recordists to use one or several sets of consumer type loudspeakers

(sometimes in and often outside the studio) to obtain an idea of how their

project might sound over home-quality playback systems, listening during

the recording process requires great attention to subtleties of sound that are

often only apparent over speakers designed to deliver great sonic detail.

All components in a high-quality playback system must perform at a high

level and have qualities that complement the other components of the sys-

tem. From the input of the power ampliﬁ er(s) to the output of the loud-

speaker drivers, the signal should undergo minimal alteration, distortion

and added noise.

Loudspeaker systems are comprised of multiple drivers—at a minimum,

a low-frequency woofer and a high-frequency tweeter, and often addition-

al mid-range driver(s) and/or a subwoofer. These drivers are housed in a

loudspeaker enclosure that will impart sound qualities onto the reproduced

sound, as well as impact the efﬁ ciency of the system. The subwoofer is the

exception, as it will have its own enclosure and will reproduce the lowest

frequencies of all channels. The drivers are fed a signal in the frequency

range of their optimal performance by a crossover network.

A crossover network is a series of ﬁ lters that produce the required fre-

quency-limited signals for each driver. The network may be inserted into

the signal chain after the power ampliﬁ er; this is a passive network that

ﬁ lters the input signal from the power ampliﬁ er into appropriate frequency

bands at its outputs. Active crossover networks are inserted into the signal

chain before the power ampliﬁ er; since the total frequency range is divid-

ed before the ampliﬁ er, a separate ampliﬁ er channel is required for each

driver. A biampliﬁ ed system contains a two-driver loudspeaker, two power

ampliﬁ ers (or a two-channel ampliﬁ er) and an active crossover network.

A topic of some passionate debate, the qualities of the wires (cables) that

connect devices may alter properties of the signals they carry. This seems

especially noticeable with the cables between the power ampliﬁ er and the

loudspeaker.

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Detailed information on performance speciﬁ cations of all of these devices,

and the delicate science of matching components, is well outside the scope

of this writing. The reader is encouraged to explore this material, and also

to listen carefully to many different playback systems to learn their many

characteristics—preferably when using the same or similar recordings, and

placing the system in the same location(s) in the same room.

A high-quality playback system should meet the following criteria:

• Efﬁ cient transfer of power between components

• Exhibit ±1.5 dB deviation in all frequencies from 40 Hz up to 17 kHz

• Even lateral loudspeaker dispersion at all frequencies to cover the

effective listening zone equally with the same frequency response

• Meet quality performance levels in dynamic range, power supply and

output noise, frequency response, slew rate, damping factor, total har-

monic distortion (THD), intermodulation distortion (IMD), transient

intermodulation distortion (TIM), time coherence

• Noise ﬂ oor of the system in relation to the acoustic noise ﬂ oor of the

listening room

The system should produce sound with a high level of clarity and detail,

strong time/phase coherence throughout the listening range (especially

around the crossover frequencies), accurate tracking of dynamic changes

(especially for high-pitched sounds with fast attacks), and a ﬂ at frequency

response (especially in the lower octaves and above 10 kHz). The moni-

tors should supply stable imaging and not draw the listener’s attention

to the loudspeaker locations. It is important for the recordist to be able to

identify if alterations to sound quality are a product of the components of

the playback system, or if they are being created by the interaction of the

loudspeakers and the listening room.

Loudspeaker and Control Room Interaction

The control room itself can alter the sound that is heard. The acoustics of

the control room can cause radical changes in the frequency response and

time information of the sound. Ideally, any listening room would have a

constant acoustical absorption over the operating range of the loudspeak-

ers, and would appropriately diffuse the sound from the loudspeakers to

create a desirable blend of direct and reﬂ ected sound at the mixing/listen-

ing position.

Nonparallel walls; nonparallel ﬂ oor and ceiling; acoustical treatments to

absorb, reﬂ ect and diffuse sound where needed; careful selection, place-

ment and installation of loudspeakers; and a sufﬁ cient volume (dimensions

of the room) will minimize the inﬂ uence of the control room on the sound

coming from the loudspeakers.

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301

The room should absorb and reﬂ ect all frequencies equally well, should

produce very short decay times that are at substantially lower levels than

the direct sound from the loudspeakers. The room should not produce res-

onance frequencies and should not produce reﬂ ections that arrive at the

listening position at a similar amplitude as, or within a small time window

(2–5 ms) of, the direct sound.

As needed, rooms may be tuned for uniform amplitudes of all frequencies

by room equalizers, and tuned for the control of reﬂ ections (time) with

diffusers, traps, and sound absorption materials. The ideal control room

would include very speciﬁ c acoustical treatments in such a way that mini-

mal room equalization is needed.

Studio designers have widely divergent opinions on the most desirable

acoustical properties of control rooms. Conﬂ icting information and opin-

ions are common. The objective of all designers is very similar, however.

It is to establish a listening environment where sound can be accurately

reproduced.

Figure 13-8

Loud-

speakers as part of

the control room and

the effective listening

zone.

Points Equidistant

from each speaker

60º 60º

60º

Diminished Imaging

Accurate Imaging

Possible Effective

Listening Zone

CONTROL

ROOM

WALLS

Equal distances

Exaggerated Imaging

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302

Loudspeaker placement and performance speciﬁ cations are factored into

the design of control rooms. One common design approach dictates that

the loudspeaker should be a part of the wall, mounted within the wall

itself so the front of the loudspeaker is ﬂ ush with the face of the wall. This

negates the usual boost of low frequencies that results when a loudspeaker

is placed near walls, ceilings, and ﬂ oors (and especially in corners).

Loudspeakers can also be freestanding within the room in a direct ﬁ eld to

the listener. Direct ﬁ eld loudspeaker placement away from sidewalls by

4 feet and from the front wall by at least 3 feet will minimize the boost of low

frequencies (that occurs when the omnidirectional low frequencies reﬂ ect

off the wall surfaces and combine with the direct sound from the speaker).

The loudspeakers should be aligned on the same vertical plane, usually

at ear height for a seated person or slightly higher. It is important that

the meter bridge of the console, or any other object such as a computer

monitor, not be in the path between the loudspeakers and the mix position.

Strong reﬂ ections off the console, tabletop, etc. also must be minimized.

The loudspeakers should be aligned symmetrically with the sidewalls.

The

effective listening zone is an area in the control room where the repro-

duced sound can be accurately perceived. In a control room, the mix posi-

tion and/or the producer’s seat are located in the effective listening zone.

In most control rooms the size of the effective listening zone is quite small.

It is an area that is equidistant from the two loudspeakers in stereo and all

loudspeakers in surround. The area is located at roughly the same distance

from each speaker as the speakers are from each other. Angling loudspeak-

ers correctly provides optimal imaging in the effective listening zone, given

complementary room acoustics. The reader should review stereo and sur-

round loudspeaker positioning described earlier.

For accurate spatial perception, it is necessary for the effective listening

zone to be carefully evaluated. The listener must be seated in the proper

location, and the volume level must be the same at each speaker when

identical signals are applied to each channel. Moving the listening location

closer to the speaker array exaggerates imaging and moving away from

the loudspeakers diminishes imaging relationships. Rooms are built and/or

speakers are placed so few strong reﬂ ections arrive at this area. The control

room should be virtually transparent (add or subtract no characteristics to

the sound) in the listening zone.

Near-Field, Direct-Field and Room Monitoring

Loudspeakers can be incorporated into the structure of the control room,

as described above. These room monitors utilize the acoustics of the

room to their advantage, to complement their performance. Loudspeak-

ers are also found freestanding and on desktops in control rooms.

Near-

ﬁ eld

monitoring seeks to eliminate the inﬂ uence of the control room on

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303

the performance of the loudspeakers, and direct-ﬁ eld monitoring seeks to

minimize this inﬂ uence. Near-ﬁ eld monitors are typically two-way speak-

ers with dome-shaped tweeters and 6-inch woofers, and are designed to

be placed 3 to 4 feet from the listener. Direct-ﬁ eld monitors are typically

a bit larger (8-inch woofers are common) and are usually placed 4 to 5

feet from the mix seat (monitoring location) but can be somewhat further

away depending on the listening room. Near-ﬁ eld monitoring, and the use

of freestanding loudspeakers at close distances (direct-ﬁ eld monitoring),

have become more common as small project studios have begun to domi-

nate the market. Quality, accurate and reasonably priced monitor systems

have brought detailed and accurate reproduction systems widely acces-

sible for homes and small studios.

For direct- and near-ﬁ eld monitoring, speakers can be located on stands

in front of a DAW’s computer screen, seated on a meter bridge, or placed

elsewhere as appropriate. The speakers will be 3 to 5 feet apart, and the

listener will be at the same distance from the speakers (Figure 13-9). Sound

is heard near the speakers, before the acoustics of the room can alter it.

The goal is for the reﬂ ected sound in the control room to have little or no

impact on what is heard in direct- and near-ﬁ eld monitoring because of the

listener’s close position to the loudspeakers. A room with highly reverber-

ant characteristics, such as highly reﬂ ective parallel walls and other sur-

faces, may still alter sound in direct- and near-ﬁ eld monitoring.

Figure 13-9

Freestand-

ing direct-ﬁ eld and

near-ﬁ eld loudspeaker

relationships to the

listening environ-

ment and the listener

location.

60º 60º

SIDE

WALL

5 feet

(approximate

maximum)

60º

3 feet

(minimum)

4 feet

(minimum)

4 feet

(minimum)

FRONT

WALL

SIDE

WALL

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Since the control room has very little inﬂ uence on the sound quality of

near- and direct-ﬁ eld monitoring, this approach is often the exclusive moni-

toring system of control rooms that have poor room acoustics. In this case,

high-quality monitors speciﬁ cally designed for professional direct/near-

ﬁ eld monitoring are used. These speakers are preferred over the large stu-

dio monitors by some recordists, especially during long sessions when the

more intense energy of (some) large speakers can fatigue the ear.

Often problems with recordings can be more easily identiﬁ ed using high-

quality near-ﬁ eld monitors rather than monitors that interact with the room.

This is especially true of rooms with decay times above 0.25 seconds. Near-

ﬁ eld monitors can be used for quality control to more readily identify sub-

tle issues and noises in recordings and to facilitate editing, because subtle

details are often perceived as clearer when room sounds are not perceived.

The ambience of the room does not pull detail from the sound and the lis-

tener is able to more easily focus attention on a nearer source.

The size of the effective listening zone for direct-ﬁ eld and near-ﬁ eld moni-

toring is very small. The listener must be precisely centered between the

two loudspeakers, and the listener cannot be beyond the distance from the

two loudspeakers as they are from one another, or the effects of the room

will immediately come into play. The listener should be located at or very

near the same distance from each loudspeaker, as the two loudspeakers

are from each other.

It is not unusual for recordists to periodically switch back and forth between

room and near-ﬁ eld monitors. This allows the recordist to evaluate the

sound qualities and relationships of the recording from different listening

locations and with loudspeakers that have different sound qualities. The

recordist will be attempting to create a consistency between the sounds

of the two monitor systems inasmuch as this is possible. The speakers are

usually switchable at the mixing position, with each pair having a dedicated

ampliﬁ er(s), set to match monitoring level while switching speakers.

Bookshelf-type, consumer loudspeakers are sometimes used in the studio

in a near-ﬁ eld setting. This provides a reference to a consumer playback

environment, and can represent the sound of typical, moderately priced

speaker systems. They often tend to have a narrow frequency response, de-

emphasizing high and low frequencies areas, and diminished detail.

Monitor Levels

The sound pressure level (SPL) at which the recordist listens will inﬂ uence

the sound of the project. Humans do not hear frequency equally well at all

amplitudes, as discussed in Chapter 1. A recording created at a

monitor lev-

of 100 dB (SPL) will sound considerably different when it is played back

at the common home-listening monitoring level of 75 dB or lower. The bass

line that was present during the mixdown session will not be as prominent

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305

in playback at the lower level. Similarly, the tracks that were recorded at

105 dB during a tracking session (because someone in the control room

wanted to “feel” the sound) will have quite different spectral content when

they are heard the next day at 85 dB, during the mixdown session.

The recordist will need to develop consistency of listening levels. Ideally,

monitoring levels should be reasonably consistent throughout a project—

tracking, mixing, editing, and mastering. Calibrating your monitor system

for 85 dB SPL at the monitoring location to match 0 VU reference will assist

this greatly.

The most desirable range for monitoring is 85 to 90 dB SPL; a nominal lis-

tening level of around 85 dB with peaks reaching to 90 dB (or very slightly

beyond) is a fairly loud home-listening level, but it is a level that can be

sustained throughout a work day. Recordings made while monitored in

this range will exhibit minimal changes in frequency responses (≤5 dB at

the extremes of the hearing range) when played back as low as 60 dB SPL.

Monitoring at this level will also do much to minimize listening fatigue dur-

ing prolonged listening periods (recording and mixing sessions).

The possibility of hearing damage is a very real job hazard for recordists.

If the recordist primarily listens in the 85–90 dB range, they will have accu-

rate hearing much longer than if they consistently monitor at a level 10–15

dB higher—they may very likely also have a longer career.

Loudness is our perception of the physical sensation of amplitude. It is pos-

sible to become sensitive to amplitude, and therefore loudness, by atten-

tion to the physical sensation of sound pressure levels. It is unreasonable

to believe the listener might develop an ability to accurately identify a spe-

ciﬁ c SPL or a speciﬁ c increment of change of level. It is however possible

to learn how a narrow range of SPL “feels,” and thereby learn to recognize

a safe and effective listening range. The reader is strongly encouraged to

work through the loudness perception exercise at the end of this chapter,

and to purchase an inexpensive sound-level meter and check listening lev-

els frequently.

Headphones

Headphones are sometimes used in recording processes for monitoring.

They are required for creating and listening to binaural recordings, which

minimize reliance on acoustic interaural signals. Headphones are often

used for remote recording and for projects that have the performers in the

same space as the recordist. In these instances, headphones may be the

only feasible monitoring option. Other than these situations, monitoring is

most accurately accomplished over loudspeakers, with few exceptions.

Headphones will distort spatial information, especially stereo imaging. The

listener will perceive sound within their head, instead of as occurring in front

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of their location. This distorts depth of imaging. The interaural information

of the recording is not accurately perceived during headphone monitoring,

causing potentially pronounced image size and stereo location distortions.

Further, the frequency response of headphones will not match that of loud-

speakers and is inconsistent. Frequency response of headphones will vary

with the pressure of the headphones against the head and the resulting

nearness of the transducer to the ear. In listening to a recording over head-

phones, the recordist must also imagine what the recording will sound like

when played back over loudspeakers. Some recordists have developed this

skill very accurately.

High-quality headphones paired with quality headphone ampliﬁ ers can

prove useful. They can provide low distortion, broadband frequency

response, and excellent transient response and deliver exceptional timbral

clarity and detail. Headphone monitoring with such equipment can be very

useful for editing, especially when listening for subtle technical details. At

times the ambience of a control room can make processing artifacts, tim-

ing errors, faint clicks, ticks and edit point issues very difﬁ cult to hear; such

sounds are often easier to perceive over headphones, where the speaker

is nearer the ear. Sonic detail and accuracy of spatial information remain

compromised, however.

The sound evaluations that are covered herein can only be accurately per-

formed over quality loudspeakers, in a transparent (or complementary) lis-

tening environment. Rarely is it preferable to monitor over headphones if

both options are available.

Summary

Before sounds are recorded, the recordist makes many decisions that

shape the recording project. Many of these choices will limit how the music

might be shaped later in the recording process and must be approached

with knowledge and sensitivity. Selecting and deﬁ ning sound-source tim-

bres, capturing those sought qualities with effective microphone selection

and placement, crafting new timbres with synthesis, selecting recording

devices throughout the signal chain, and selecting monitoring systems and

conditions are all decisions that can profoundly impact any project.

When the entire project is considered at this planning stage, decisions in

many areas can be made that will not limit the recordist as the project

progresses. A clear sense of artistic direction will be established that will

allow the music’s potential to be realized and a high-quality recording to

be made.

These preliminary stages prepare for successful projects of quality that

make efﬁ cient and effective use of studio time. They also allow recordists

to be in control of their craft and shape the artistic qualities of music.

Preliminary Stages: Deﬁ ning the Materials of the Project

307

Exercises

Exercise 13-1

Loudness Perception Exercise

Humans experience a physical sensation from the amplitude of a sound wave

that is transferred into loudness. Excessive amplitude can cause pain in hu-

mans. Becoming sensitive to the physical sensation of listening at an appropri-

ate loudness level is equally possible, with practice, attention and diligence.

1. Purchase an inexpensive sound-level meter, and keep it in front of your

listening location for your monitor system. Set your monitoring level so

that the average SPL registered is between 80 and 85 dB SPL. It is accept-

able for peaks to hit 90 dB or slightly above and for soft passages to dip

below 80 dB by several dB.

2. Begin your practice by listening to recordings you know well or are study-

ing at this loudness level, checking the meter frequently to verify listening

levels. In the beginning, keep the meter on whenever you are listening.

Become aware of the physical sensation of your hearing created by listen-

ing at that level. You will begin to notice energy impacting the hearing

mechanism (inner ear) with your focused attention, over time. You will

begin to develop an increased sensitivity to the physical sensation of loud-

ness level.

3. Be consistent in listening at this level when working on your own projects.

Check your meter regularly. Over a few weeks (or a bit less or longer) of

being aware of the physical sensation of this loudness level region, you

will develop a memory of the sensation.

4. Listen to a recording you know well on your monitor system by starting

with the monitor level off and without the meter on. Bring up the level

gradually until you believe you have reached this average level of between

80 and 85 dB SPL. Check yourself with your meter after you believe you

have established this level. Repeat this exercise regularly (several times per

day, if possible or a minimum of once per day) until you begin to have

success in recognizing this level.

5. Turn next to listening in other environments you do not know as well,

perhaps your automobile, a home system, or a monitor system in another

location. You will notice you are not as accurate at ﬁ rst, but this accuracy

will increase as you become more aware of focusing on energy impacting

your hearing mechanism. In time this skill will carry over from listening

environment to listening environment, if you continue to try to establish

a correct listening level in a new location, and check your accuracy with

your meter.

Just as pitch reference, this skill will take time and effort over an extended peri-

od, and the skill will not become completely reliable. It will, however, improve

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308

your listening skill considerably and serve as an important point of reference.

In time you will gain an awareness of when you are listening at an average level

of between 80 and 85 dB SPL. It is also possible that you will come to prefer

an average level toward either the high or low side of this range. Arriving at a

reliable sense of average loudness level will greatly assist one in maintaining a

stable sound quality of monitoring, as well as an accurate listening level.

Most importantly, you will become very aware of being in an environment

where the SPL extends well above 90 dB SPL. That higher level brings increased

pressure on the hearing mechanism that will be very apparent and uncomfort-

able. This will trigger your awareness that hearing fatigue will happen quickly

and a sense of urgency that if this level extends far above 90 dB, you are in

danger of damaging your hearing.

Exercise 13-2

Identifying and Comparing Microphone Characteristics

The purpose of this exercise is to learn the special way a microphone will

transform sound. This is most easily accomplished by comparing several dif-

ferent microphones located in a very similar location while recording a single

performance.

1. Set up to record a single performance of a sound source you know well,

and that is easy for you to record accurately, given your setup and record-

ing space. Identify your preferred location to capture the sound of that

instrument or voice.

2. Place the 2, 3 or 4 microphones (on appropriate stands) as near the same

location as possible.

3. Assign each microphone its own track on a multitrack recorder, and ob-

tain suitable record levels.

4. Record the sound source performing pitches in the extremes of its range,

performing loudly and softly, short sounds and sustained sounds, sounds

with a fast attack and with slower attacks (of course this is not possible

on some instruments), and other material you might ﬁ nd helpful.

5. Establish playback levels where each track can be compared to all others

at the same loudness.

6. Listen carefully to the sound quality of each microphone to identify its

unique qualities. Listen to how the microphone captured the spectrum

and the dynamic envelope of the source, and how quickly it responded to

changes. Listen to different “blends” of the source’s timbre captured by

the individual microphones, and how quickly each microphone respond-

ed to changes to the source.

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309

Exercise 13-3

Comparing Microphone Placements

The purpose of this exercise is to learn how microphones have different sound

qualities when placed at different distances. This can be accomplished by

creating a recording of a single performance of the same microphone at a

number of locations. You will need several (2, 3 or 4) of the same microphone

make and model for this.

1. Set up to record a single performance of a sound source you know well,

and that is easy for you to record accurately, given your setup and record-

ing space. Identify your preferred locations to capture the sound of that

instrument or voice.

2. Place the 2, 3 or 4 microphones (on appropriate stands) at those loca-

tions. Take the time to calculate and write down the distances and angles

of the microphones to the source.

3. Assign each microphone its own track on a multitrack recorder, and ob-

tain suitable record levels.

4. Record the sound source performing pitches in the extremes of its range,

performing loudly and softly, short sounds and sustained sounds, sounds

with a fast attack and with slower attacks (of course this is not possible

on some instruments), and other material you might ﬁ nd helpful.

5. Establish playback levels where each track can be compared to all others

at the same loudness.

6. Listen carefully to the sound quality of each microphone to identify its

unique qualities. Listen to how the microphone captured the spectrum

and the dynamic envelope of the source, and how quickly it responded to

changes. Listen to different “blends” of the source’s timbre captured by

the individual microphones, and how quickly each microphone respond-

ed to changes to the source. Finally, note the “reach” of the microphone

at these various locations, and bring your attention to the accuracy of

timbral detail and the ratio of direct to reverberant sound. If you can,

listen for reﬂ ections in the room that are causing portions of the source’s

timbre to be emphasized and attenuated.

Exercises 13-4

Additional Exercises for Microphone Techniques

Stereo and surround microphone techniques and their placements can also

be compared and evaluated by substituting arrays for the individual micro-

phones found in the above two exercises. In these evaluations, spatial rela-

tionships of the source to the sound stage and the spaciousness of environ-

mental cues will also be evaluated.

310

14 Capturing, Shaping and

Creating the Performance

With objectives clearly deﬁ ned and a vision of the sound and content of the

project, the recording can now take place most effectively.

The recordist will capture the performance through recording or tracking the

musical parts and instrumentation, and will shape sound qualities and rela-

tionships of the performance through equipment selection and signal pro-

cessing. The mixing process will continue the shaping of the performance

and will result in the creation of the performance (that is the recording).

The actual act of recording sound begins here. The preliminary stages that

were discussed in the previous chapter will deﬁ ne the dimensions of the

creative project and of the ﬁ nal recording. In addition to these, certain oth-

er preparations must take place before a successful tracking or recording

session can begin.

Whenever possible, the musicians should be prepared for their performance

at recording and tracking sessions. Unfortunately, it is possible some musi-

cians will get their music or performance instructions when they arrive for

a recording session. This limits their potential to contribute to the musical-

ity of the project and can minimize the quality of their performance.

Ideally, music should be given to performers well in advance of a session.

Solo performers should have the opportunity to learn their parts before

they join the other musicians, and all musicians expected to perform simul-

taneously as a group should be well rehearsed together (as an ensemble).

As much as possible, musicians should be given the opportunity to arrive

at the session knowing what will be expected of them, know their parts,

and be ready to perform. It is often best when the music to be recorded has

been performed several times in concert—in front of an audience. In the

reality of music recording, this ideal is not always feasible.

Capturing, Shaping and Creating the Performance

311

Some ﬁ nal instrumentation decisions and many of the supportive aspects

of the music are, however, often decided upon during the preliminary stag-

es of the recording process (or during the production process itself). The

recordist will learn to anticipate that some musical decisions will be made

during tracking. They will become aware that dimensions of creative proj-

ects can tend to shift (sometimes markedly) as works evolve, especially

between types of clients and types of music. The recordist must keep as

many options open as possible, to keep creative artists from being limited

in exploring their musical ideas. They must not ﬁ nd themselves in the posi-

tion of not being able to execute a brilliant musical/production idea (with-

out hours of undoing or redoing) because of a recording decision made

a few minutes earlier. Allowing for ﬂ exibility may be as simple as leaving

open the option of adding more instruments or musical ideas to the piece,

by leaving open tracks on the multitrack tape, or in console layout, cue mix

changes and signal routing, or in mixdown planning.

The recording studio is the musical instrument of the recordist. The record-

ing process is the musical performance of the recordist. In order to use

recording for artistic expression, the recordist must be in complete control

of the devices in the studio, and must understand their potentials in captur-

ing and crafting the artistic elements of sound.

Recording and Tracking Sessions:

Shifting of Focus and Perspectives

Recordings are made with performers recorded individually or in groups,

or with all parts of the music performed at once. “Recording sessions” as

used here are recordings of all the parts being played at once; the entire

musical texture is recorded as a single sound.

Tracking is the recording of the individual instruments or voices (sound

sources) or small groups of instruments or voices, into a multitrack for-

mat (DAW, analog multitrack recorder, etc.). This is done in such a way that

the sounds can be mixed, processed, edited, or otherwise altered at some

future time, and without altering other sound sources. For this isolated

control of the sound source to be possible, it is imperative that the sound

sources be recorded with minimal information from other sound sources

and at the highest safe loudness level the system will allow.

Recording and tracking sessions require the recordist to continually shift

focus and perspective, while listening to both the live musicians and the

recorded sound. Further, they will move between analytical and critical-

listening processes. The musical qualities of the performance will be con-

stantly evaluated at the same time as the perceived qualities of the captured

sound. The recordist is responsible for making certain both aspects are of

the highest quality and exist accurately and without distortion state in the

storage medium.

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In Part Two listening skills were developed for individual aspects of sound.

These skills are used here, during production, in actual practice. The great

difference is Part Two allowed the reader to focus on a single aspect of

sound and to remain at a single level of perspective. This was very helpful

for developing one’s listening abilities. In actual recording practice, those

many skills will be used virtually simultaneously, as the recordist switches

between elements, levels of detail and types of information very quickly

and deliberately.

Focus will have the listener’s attention moving freely but deliberately

between all of the artistic elements of sound and all of the perceived

parameters of sound. The recordist will need to shift focus between artistic

elements (perhaps shifting attention between dynamic levels, pitch informa-

tion, or spatial cues), then immediately shift to a perspective that evaluates

program dynamic contour (of the overall sound). The recordist is required

to continually scan the sound materials to determine the appropriateness

of the sound (and its artistic elements) to the creative objectives of the proj-

ect, and to determine the technical quality of the perceived characteristics

of the sound.

Within the recording and tracking sessions, the recordist is concerned

about the aesthetics of the sound quality that is going to “tape,” and they

are concerned about the technical quality of the signal. Depending on

their function in the particular project, they may not be in the position to

make decisions related to performance quality. They should nonetheless

be aware of the performance and be ready to provide their evaluations

when asked or to anticipate the next activity (repeat a take, or move on to

the next section, as examples). It is imperative that the recordist always be

aware of the technical quality

of the recording. It is their responsibility for

high-quality sound to be recorded.

Analytical Listening Concerns

There are many performance-quality aspects of music that will engage

the recordist in analytical listening at this stage. Most of these aspects are

related to:

• Intonation

• Control of dynamics

• Accuracy of rhythm

• Tempo

• Expression and intensity

• Performance technique

The pitch reference, time judgment and musical memory skills gained in Part

Two will now be invaluable. Staying in tune, at a speciﬁ c reference (such as

A440) is necessary for “Take 1” to be useable against, say, “Take 617.” Tempo

also must not change unintentionally, and dynamics must remain consistent

Capturing, Shaping and Creating the Performance

313

throughout the session(s). Dynamics can be altered by performance inten-

sity, and these changes in expression should be under control and factored

into dynamic level considerations. How a musical idea is played is often just

as important as the idea itself; the expressiveness of the performance and

its suitability to the project are important aspects of great recordings (such

as the ones we seek to make). While these areas may not always be under

the purview of the recordist, ﬂ awed material needs to be identiﬁ ed at all

times. Just how and when issues get pointed out to the artists, producer or

others varies with the project, roles and personalities involved.

The performance technique of musicians is critical in recording. The per-

former’s sound cannot be covered up by the other players or assisted by the

acoustics of a performance environment, and will be apparent in the ﬁ nal

sound. The ways performers produce sound or the instruments themselves

can create the desired musical impact, or it may not. The person respon-

sible for the project will need to make evaluations and to offer necessary

alternatives. The recordist should know any performance-technique prob-

lems and the natural acoustic sound properties of all of the instruments

(while well outside the scope of this writing).

At this stage the recordist should be getting a clear idea of the intended

overall qualities of the ﬁ nal recording, and how each track will contribute

to those overall qualities. Tracking will capture or shape sound signiﬁ cantly,

and will either allow the recordist to achieve the desired sound or it will fall

short. Careful attention must be given to the sound quality of the sound

source for timbral detail, performance intensity, dynamic contour, spatial

concerns, sound quality (for pitch density), and more. Depending upon

what source is being recorded at the time and the ﬁ nal intended sound

quality, some artistic elements might be more important than others; still

all contribute important information and must be considered. All of the

analytical listening skills gained in Part Two will be used in this process.

Critical Listening Concerns

The technical quality of the recording will be reﬂ ected in the integrity of the

recording’s signals. The recording process must not be allowed to alter the

perceived parameters of sound, unless there is a particular artistic purpose

or technical function for the alterations. The perceived pitch, amplitude,

time elements, timbre, and spatial qualities of the recorded sound sources

should be accurately captured in the recording, and should be the only

sounds present in the reproduced recording. Any extra sounds are noise,

and any unwanted alterations to the sound are distortions. The recordist

must know the recording process and devices instinctively well for this to

be accomplished ﬂ uently. The goal is for impeccable technical sound qual-

ity to be achieved effortlessly, so that attention can be mostly given the

artistic qualities of the sound and the performance.

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Accurate recording and reproduction of the audio signal must be consistently

present for professional-quality music recordings. Skills in evaluating sound

quality, time information, and dynamic contours at all levels of perspective

are important here. Sound will be evaluated for ﬂ aws and added sound/nois-

es by scanning all parameters of sound at all levels of perspective.

Each device in the signal chain has potential to add noise to the signal, and

to alter aspects of the signal in undesirable ways. A myriad of noises (such

as clicks, hiss, hum, digital artifacts, quantization noise, and countless oth-

ers) can be added to the signal by any device. They might also degrade

the quality of the signal by introducing clipping, total harmonic distortion,

phase shifting, drop out, intermodulation distortion, latency, and more.

These can all be caused by misuse or malfunctions of the devices (i.e., a

microphone overdriving a microphone preamp or a dirty potentiometer on

a mixing console).

Interconnections of devices must also be correct to preserve the quality

of signals throughout the signal chain. Gain staging, connection points,

analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversions, conversions of digital

formats, and many other issues also have the potential to diminish the

integrity at any point throughout the signal chain. It is the recordist’s respon-

sibility to recognize all these events, their sources, and more to ensure a

high-quality recording.

Other critical-listening applications during recording and tracking sessions

relate to microphone issues discussed in Chapter 13:

• Isolating sound sources during tracking

• Achieving a desirable sound quality through matching an appropriate

microphone with the sound source

• Identifying an appropriate placement angle and distance for the

microphone

• Eliminating unwanted sounds created by performers or instruments

Sounds will have a certain degree of isolation from one another. If the

sounds are to be altered individually in the mixing stage, they must be iso-

lated. When a group of sounds function as a single unit, it may not be appro-

priate to isolate the sounds from one another, as they are often blended by

the performance space. Problems arise when unwanted sounds leak onto

tracks that contain sound sources that were intended to be isolated from

all other sound sources. This leakage can be the cause of many problems

later on in mixing directly to two-track or surround, or in the multitrack

mixdown process.

Sound quality should be carefully evaluated as it is captured by the micro-

phone. The amount of timbral detail, blend, etc., of the sound sources will

be determined now. These are major decisions that will have a decisive

impact on the sound of the ﬁ nal recording, and are largely determined by

Capturing, Shaping and Creating the Performance

315

microphone selection and placement. Evaluations of the sound out of the

context of the music is helpful in discovering subtle qualities that are often

missed when one is listening analytically.

Many recordists rely on equalization and other processing to obtain a suit-

able sound quality during this initial recording. This use of processing alters

the natural sound quality of the sound source and does not alter the timbre

equally well throughout an instrument’s range; for example, equalization

will add a new formant region to the track/sound source. It can be used

effectively when the processed sound is desired over the source’s natural

sound, or when practical considerations limit microphone selection and

placement options. Often it can compromise the recording and should be

approached carefully. Processing—especially equalization—is often used

at this stage to compensate for poor microphone selection or placement.

Related to performance technique, the ways performers produce sound

on their instrument, or the instruments themselves, can create unwanted

sound qualities that must be negated during the tracking process. Often

these aspects of sound quality are very subtle and go unnoticed until the

mixing stage (when it is too late to correct them).

Instruments are capable of making unwanted sounds, as well as musical

ones. The sound of a guitarist’s left hand moving on the ﬁ ngerboard, the

breath sounds of a vocalist or wind player, and the release of a keyboard

pedal are but a few of the possible nonmusical and (normally) unwanted

noises that may be produced by instruments during the initial recording

and tracking process.

These sounds are easily eliminated during the initial recording and tracking

process through altering microphone placement, through slight modiﬁ ca-

tions in performance technique, or through minor repairs to the instrument.

The multitrack tape should be as free of all unwanted live-performer sounds

and sound alterations as possible. These sounds will be much more difﬁ cult

to remove later in the recording process. They may be comprised of certain

performance peculiarities that (depending on the situation) can only be alle-

viated by signal processing (such as the use of a de-esser on a vocalist).

Anticipating Mixdown During Tracking

The mixdown process should be anticipated while compiling basic tracks.

It is necessary to determine how much control in combining sounds is

needed or desired during the mixing process. Tracking, submixing and iso-

lation decisions can then be made accordingly.

Any mixing of microphones during the tracking process will greatly dimin-

ish the amount of independent control the recordist will have over the

individual sound sources during the ﬁ nal mixdown process. Some mixing

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will often occur during the tracking stage, as submixes, to consolidate

instruments and open tracks, or to blend performers that must interact with

one another for musical reasons.

Submixes will be carefully planned at the beginning of a session, and must

be executed with a clear idea of how the sounds will be present in the

ﬁ nal mix. Drums are often condensed into submixes (either mixed live, or

through overdubbing and bouncing). Other mixes that will occur during

the tracking process include the combining of several microphones (and/or

a direct box) on the same instrument(s). The recordist must be planning

ahead to how these sounds will appear in the anticipated ﬁ nal mix, espe-

cially for musical balance, sound qualities, distance cues (deﬁ nition of

timbral detail), and pitch density.

Preprocessing (such as adding compression while recording) alters the

timbre of the sound source before it reaches the mixing stages of the

recording chain. Preprocessing also diminishes the amount of control the

recordist will have over the sound during the mixing process. At times, it is

desirable to preprocess signals; often it is not.

Desirable preprocessing might include stereo microphone techniques used

on sound sources, effects that are integral parts of the sound quality of

an instrument (distorted guitar), or processors that are used to provide a

speciﬁ c sound quality (compressed bass). At times preprocessing is used

to eliminate unwanted sounds during tracking (such as noise gated drums).

Once a source has been preprocessed, the alterations to the sound source

cannot be undone. The recordist should be conﬁ dent that they want the

processed sound before recording it.

Some initial planning of the mixdown sessions will begin during the track-

ing process. Certain events that will need to take place during the mixdown

session will become apparent as the tracking process unfolds. Keeping a

tally of these observations will save considerable time later on and may

help other tracking decisions.

Examples of items that should be noted for the mixing process are:

• Sudden changes in the mix that may be required because of the con-

tent of the tracks

• Certain processing techniques that are planned

• Any spatial relationships or environmental characteristics that may be

desired for certain tracks

• Track noises or poor performances of certain sections that will need to

be eliminated (muted) during the mix

These are just a few examples of the many factors that may become appar-

ent during the tracking process.

Capturing, Shaping and Creating the Performance

317

Signal Processing: Shifting of Perspective

to Reshape Sounds and Music

Among the most commonly applied audio devices are signal processors.

They are important tools (instruments) for the recordist. These devices

may play a large role in shaping the individual project. Speciﬁ c devices are

chosen because their individual, inherent sound qualities lend themselves

to the particular project. They each control one of the three basic properties

of the waveform: frequency, amplitude, or time.

Three types of signal processors exist, each functioning on a particu-

lar dimension of the waveform. As learned in Part One, an alteration in

one of the physical dimensions of sound will cause a change in the other

dimensions. Furthermore, alterations of the physical dimensions will cause

changes in timbre (sound quality). The three types of processors do not

only cause audible changes in the three characteristics of the waveform, but

they may also alter the timbre of the sound source. If considered accord-

ing to how processors alter sound, signal processing can be simpliﬁ ed and

approached with clarity.

• Frequency processors

• Amplitude processors

• Time processors

Frequency processors include equalizers and ﬁ lters. Compressors, limiters,

expanders, noise gates, and de-essers are essentially amplitude processors.

Time processors are primarily delay and reverberation units. Effects devic-

es are hybrids of one of these three primary categories. Some examples

of these specialized signal processors include ﬂ anges, chorusing devices,

distortion, fuzz, pitch shifters, and many more.

Uses of Processing

Signal processing can be used to shape sound qualities. It is applied to the

sound source to complete the process of carefully crafting sounds. This is

done for the character of the source’s sound quality, and to shape sounds

to complement the functions and meanings of the musical materials and

creative ideas.

In the recording chain, signal processing can occur at a number of times. It

may be incorporated in the tracking as preprocessing, and is most often used

to bridge the tracking and mixdown processes. It can also be added subtly

in mastering. Individual instruments or voices can be directed through any

number of signal processors. Similarly, groups of instruments can receive

the same processing, either in the same way or in differing amounts (such

any number of instruments, each sending a different amount of signal to a

buss feeding a reverb unit). The entire recording might also be processed,

as is common in the mastering process.

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Signal processing often occurs separately between the tracking sessions

and in preparation for the mixdown session(s)—usually without perform-

ing actual re-recordings of the basic tracks. Tracks are evaluated and sig-

nal processors (hardware devices or the software equivalent plug-ins) are

applied to the tracks to determine ﬁ nal sound qualities. Processor settings

are often noted in session documentation for incorporation into the ﬁ nal

mix, and the recordist performs signal processing in real time during the

mixdown. While it is not common to change processor settings throughout

the course of the mix, the ratio of processed signal to unprocessed signal

might be adjusted, especially for reverb.

Signal-processing sessions on a DAW are simpler. When the desired

settings in one or more plug-ins have been established, they are saved as

part of the project ﬁ le. Of course it is also possible to send signals out of

a DAW for signal processing, and this is a reasonably common practice,

especially when one might want a speciﬁ c device (reverb unit or compres-

sor, for instance) instead of a plug-in.

Listening and Processing

Signal-processing decisions involve critical and analytical listening. Critical-

listening decisions will be made to establish qualities of the sound, for its

own sake. Decisions will also be made concerning how the sound relates to

other sounds and to the entire program (analytical listening). The recordist

will focus on the smallest changes in the source’s timbre, and on any num-

ber of higher levels of perspective. Careful attention to detail is needed, as

well as attention to how small changes in one element or level of perspec-

tive impact the sound in other ways.

The recordist must use the skills of Part Two to focus on the component

parts of the sound qualities of the sound sources being processed. Small,

precise changes in sound quality are possible with signal processing. This

requires the recordist to listen at the lowest levels of perspective, and to

continually shift focus between the various artistic elements (or perceived

parameters) being altered. These changes are often subtle, and can be

unnoticeable to untrained listeners. Often beginning recordists are not able

to detect low levels of processing. This is a skill that must be developed.

Most signal processing involves critical listening. The sound source is con-

sidered for its timbral qualities out of context and as a separate entity. In

this way, the sound can be shaped to the precise sound qualities desired by

the recordist, without the distractions of context.

Knowledge of the physical dimensions of the sound and of perception are

great aids for successful signal processing.

Signal processing alters the electronic (analog or digital) representation

of the sound source. In this state, the sound source exists in its physical

Capturing, Shaping and Creating the Performance

319

dimensions. The various signal processors are designed to perform spe-

ciﬁ c alterations to the physical waveform, which will cause changes in the

perceived timbre of the sound source. Signal processors are only useful as

creative tools if the recordist is in control of these changes in the physical

dimensions. Immediately after altering the sound source’s physical dimen-

sions, the recordist will shift focus to place the sound in the context of the

music, as an artistic element.

After the sound has been reshaped, the listener will use analytical listening

to evaluate the sound. The altered characteristics of the sound source and

the overall sound quality of the source will be evaluated as they relate to

the other sound sources and to their function in the musical context. They

will ask “Are these changes appropriate for the music, or do they achieve

the desired sound for the musical instrument?” The sound quality shifts

of processing will be evaluated according to their appropriateness to the

musical idea.

The Mix: Composing and Performing the Recording

Mixing is where the piece of music begins to emerge and ultimately comes

together. The mix creates the piece of music, almost in its ﬁ nal form. Here

the individual sound sources that were recorded or synthesized are com-

bined into a two-channel or a surround-sound recording that will become

the ﬁ nal version of the piece after the mastering process.

It is often helpful to consider the mix process in two stages: one artistic,

composing (crafting) the mix, and one technical, performing (executing)

the mix. While the two can happen almost simultaneously, they require dif-

ferent skills and thought processes.

The process of planning and shaping the mix is very similar to compos-

ing. Sounds are put together in particular ways to best suit the music. The

mix is crafted through shaping the sound stage, through combining sound

sources at certain dynamic levels, through structuring pitch density, and

much more. How these many aspects come together provide the overall

characteristics of the recording, as well as all its sonic details. Consistently

shaping the “sound” of recordings in certain ways leads some recordists to

develop their own personal, audible styles over time.

The actual process of executing the mix is very similar to performing. Mix-

ing often involves controlling sound in real time. Controlling the loudness

levels of tracks, changing routing, muting tracks, altering processing, and

more are routinely performed during mixdown, especially in systems that

do not have automation. Many technical decisions also occur during mix-

ing; many are out of real time. Recordists will develop their own approach

to sequencing those activities and decisions, and ultimately create their

own working methods.

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Often, composing the mix and performing the mix happen simultaneously.

The piece is shaped slowly as parts come together, and creative ideas are

reﬁ ned as new ideas emerge from hearing portions of the work as they

are being completed. Sometimes new ideas take the project in new direc-

tions entirely; sometimes sounds or relationships of parts are “discovered”

during the mixing process. Creative ideas get reﬁ ned as a project unfolds.

Keeping the technical process and all of the devices and controls from

absorbing the creative energy and disrupting the ﬂ ow of the project is nec-

essary, and is not an easy thing to accomplish. It is necessary to learn to

ﬂ uently operate all devices and software of the recording chain so one is in

complete control of the recording process. Only with the technical process-

es under control and in the background of the recordist’s mind can atten-

tion truly be directed to crafting the artistic dimensions of the recording.

During the mixdown sessions the separate tracks that were recorded dur-

ing tracking and synthesis will be combined. Many of the recording’s sound

relationships are crafted in the process. To compose the mix, the record-

ist shapes the artistic elements discussed in detail previously. It can be

helpful to group the elements into three groups, or broad areas of focus.

Approaching each separately in planning and executing the mix can help

the recordist clarify their ideas and approaches to a mix. Each of these

signiﬁ cantly shapes the recording, and each will also impact the other two.

One must remember to listen to a mix from many perspectives and atten-

tion to all artistic elements to be certain a desirable sound quality exists in

all aspects of the recording.

These three groups are listed below, with the elements and some other

concerns they contain:

1. Musical balance

a. Loudness

b. Prominence versus loudness

c. Attention, meaning, surprise

2. Pitch and sound quality

a. Pitch density and timbral balance

b. Performance intensity and sound quality

c. Environments of sources and sound quality

d. Dynamic contour by density and/or register versus loudness

3. Spatial qualities and relationships

a. Dimensions of the sound stage

b. Placement and size of sources on the sound stage

c. Listener to sound-stage distance

d. Environments of sources and depth of sound stage

It is important to remember the recordist must have, or be working deliber-

ately to establish, a clear idea of the ﬁ nal sound qualities that are desired.

With clear objectives, the recordist can work toward meeting those goals.

Capturing, Shaping and Creating the Performance

321

Successful mixes balance these elements in all of the sound

sources with the message and musicality of the song.

These elements are used to craft the overall characteris-

tics of the song: form, structure, reference dynamic level,

sound stage dimensions, perceived performance environ-

ment, timbral balance, and program dynamic contour.

Before we explore these three groups of elements indi-

vidually, we will examine how the mix interacts with the

music message and its musical materials.

Composing the Mix: Presenting, Shaping and

Enhancing Musical Materials

The song (piece of music) is made in the mix, and the

recordist is participating. The mix makes musical ideas

come together. The song is built during the mixing process

by combining the musical ideas, focusing on shaping the

three groups of elements that will be discussed below.

A successful mix will be constructed with a returning

focus on the materials of the song, and the message of the

music. The musical ideas that were captured in tracking are

now presented in the mix in ways that best deliver the story of the text and

the character of the music.

Referring back to the hierarchy of musical materials in Part One, we remem-

ber that the structure of a song, or piece of music, is created by primary

and secondary musical elements. These take place at different levels of

importance to the overall musical structure, and at different levels of per-

spective for the listener. How the musical ideas are crafted and combined

is in the area of music theory and, while not covered here, this information

is of great value to the recordist. The ways the recording process will com-

bine the sound sources’ materials will present their musical ideas in new

relationships, and can profoundly shape and enhance them. The mix will

greatly inﬂ uence the musical style of the piece of music.

It is important to establish a clear idea of the ﬁ nal sound qualities that are

desired for the song/recording. Just where to start will vary between indi-

viduals. Some people work from small ideas, adding and building to create

large sections. Some people need to have an idea of where they want to

arrive before they begin crafting the smaller details. Often individuals will

use different approaches for different songs. How one arrives at a vision of

what the song needs to sound like is not important. What is important is

having a strong sense of the desired overall sound qualities of song, and a

strong sense of how some (or most, or all) of the details of the music will

bring this to reality.

Listen . . .

to tracks 48-53

for these musical balance, pitch and

sound quality, and spatial qualities

groups and the elements they con-

tain found in these six different mix-

es of the same drum performance.

Note that all of the materials dis-

cussed in this section played directly

into these different sound qualities.

Observe these various production

aesthetics and the sound stages and

sound qualities that are created.

Use any graphs from Part Two that

might be helpful.

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The overall sound qualities, as explored previously, are:

• the song’s sense of intimacy with the listener, created by the perceived

listener to nearest sound source distance

• the energy level, intensity and expressive qualities of the song that cre-

ate a reference dynamic level

• the overall dynamic shape of the song (program dynamic contour)

• how the song uses the pitch registers to create a timbral balance or

spectrum of the overall recording

• the width and depth of the sound stage (stereo or surround)

• the impression of the song’s performance space, or perceived perfor-

mance environment

• all of these and the musical structure coming together into a global

shape and concept of the song, its form

Some simple and direct questions can sometimes aid in determining or

clarifying these areas:

How does the story of the text unfold?

How does the music support this?

How can the mix support this?

What relationship do I want the listener to have with the music?

(Observing from afar or intimately close? Maintaining a comfortable

distance? In a large performance space or small? Focused on the text

or feeling the beat? And many more.)

What special qualities are needed to most effectively present what the

song is trying to portray?

How should each of the overall qualities contribute to communicating

the music?

Certainly many other questions are equally valid and potentially important.

The clearer the vision of what is sought in the areas, the smoother and

more effectively the mix will progress.

Mixes create relationships of individual sources or small groups of sources

when they are assembled. These sources (and the musical materials they

are playing) are all given their own or a shared “place” in the mix. This

“place” might be a “space” or “location,” a “level” or “area,” a “character”

or a “set of characteristics” in each artistic element, such as lateral location,

thing in its place, while giving any ﬁ nal shapes to the sounds.

Just where to place a sound source is a matter of what will best suit the

song, and what will deliver the desired overall sound qualities. Among

important questions to ask are:

Capturing, Shaping and Creating the Performance

323

How can this instrument/voice, presenting this musical idea, be placed

in the musical balance to contribute most effectively?

What spatial qualities and relationships will most effectively present

this instrument/voice and its musical material?

What sound qualities are best suited to this instrument/voice present-

ing this musical idea?

How can I best present or enhance this sound source and musical

idea?

Should this idea and instrument (bass, for instance) be emphasized, or

should it be blended with others (bass, keyboard and bass drum)?

What special qualities do I want to bring to this instrument to enhance

the song?

How can these instruments be combined to provide the sound qualities

and sound stage that is desired?

What musical materials/instruments contribute most to deﬁ ning the

energy or the character or the message or the sound quality or the

expression of the piece—and how should they be treated?

What musical materials are supporting the primary ideas, and how can

they be made to do this most effectively?

The answers to these questions (and others that are similar and others

that are more detailed) will lead the recordist with direction and purpose to

crafting a mix that supports the music and presents it in the most appropri-

ate way.

The recordist will decide when to blend sources together and when to

allow a source to be prominent. Just as importantly, they will decide on

how the characteristics of sound will allow these to happen. We remember

that sounds may have any level of importance to the mix and have many

dimensions. Sounds can be blended with others into groups, or be clearly

delineated from others by unique qualities. All of the elements can give

coherence to the mix by providing groups of sources with similar qualities,

and can provide variety to the mix by providing sources with unique quali-

ties. Different elements will function differently on the sound sources, such

as some instruments might be grouped by pitch density, as they perform

in a similar pitch range, but be delineated by a different stereo location.

The combinations and subtle variations are almost limitless and provide

the basis for shaping the artistic qualities of the music. Without a clear idea

of how the ﬁ nished mix is intended to sound, the recordist will have great

difﬁ culty in making quality decisions.

Stating the seemingly obvious, songs have sections with different musi-

cal materials, and often the sections contain different instrumentation;

songs change from beginning to end in many possible ways, sometimes

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markedly and sometimes subtly. Thinking in such simple terms can be of

great assistance in compiling mixes, especially in the beginning. Mixes

have the potential to change throughout a song as well, and this is not

unusual. Several distinct mixes might be used in a song, changing with the

song’s various sections (such as verse or chorus) or within sections. Mixes

can change in an unlimited number of ways, just like the musical materials

of songs. Some of these changes might be very subtle, and some might be

striking. A few potential large-scale changes might be:

• marked changes between sections (such as verse and chorus)

• subtle changes over the course of the song

• marked changes of only a few sound sources (such as lead vocal and

drum set) between sections

• sudden entrances of large groups of instruments, with corresponding

changes in the mix

• sudden exits of nearly all instruments to reveal only a few sources,

with corresponding changes in the mix for the remaining sources

Referring to the three concepts to be explored below, mixes might be

changed in all or one of the following groups of elements:

• changing relationships of musical balance of some or all sound sources

• changing spatial qualities and relationships of some or all sound

sources

• changing pitch and sound qualities of some or all sound sources

The mixing process taxes listening skills. Acute attention to all elements of

analytical listening and critical listening are vital. While the perspective is

usually at the individual sound source and up one level to how the sourc-

es sound against one another, strong awareness of the overall texture is

required to shape those characteristics discussed above. Close attention

to the detailed characteristics of sources, to the integrity of the signal and

the technical qualities of the recording are also required. The recordist will

be continually engaged in shifting focus from one element to another, and

from one level of perspective to another. The recordist must continue to

seek greater detail and an awareness of subtle qualities and relationships

of sound sources and materials; the subtle characteristics of a recording

often separate the remarkable mix that presents the music in an engaging

way from one that is acceptable but uninspiring—or worse, from one that

is poor or ineffective.

Crafting Musical Balance

The entire mixdown process is often envisioned as the process of deter-

mining the dynamic-level relationships of the sound sources. As we have

noted, the mixdown process is actually much more. It combines many

complex sound relationships, of which dynamics is only one, but it’s an

important one.

Capturing, Shaping and Creating the Performance

325

Sound sources in the mix are related to one another by dynamic level, just

as in live performance. The difference is that the levels can be carefully cal-

culated and changed throughout the course of the mixdown process. The

mixing console or mix function of a DAW allows the recordist to perform

the individual dynamic levels of the sound sources and to make any chang-

es in level in real time. This signiﬁ cantly shapes the mix and the music.

The recordist devises a musical balance of the individual tracks and per-

formers. This is the relationship of the dynamic levels of each instrument to

one another and to the overall musical texture. The individual sound sourc-

es are combined into a single musical texture, each source at its own loud-

ness level. Small changes in level of a single sound source can be difﬁ cult

to detect, especially in the beginning; this is changing the dynamic contour

of a line, and hearing these changes is an important skill to be developed.

Dynamic relationships are more readily perceived at a higher level of per-

spective, one that compares sources to one another in the overall texture;

beginning recordists can more readily develop the skill of hearing these

relationships earlier in their work. Obtaining the ability to recognize and

control loudness changes and relationships is necessary. A slight alteration

of musical balance and/or the dynamic shape of a musical idea can have a

profound impact on the music.

As noted in Parts One and Two, changing loudness levels in a mix readily

creates a difference between the actual loudness of the sound source and

the performance intensity at which it was performed during tracking. Sound

quality and loudness are then separated. This difference between musical

balance and performance intensity

skews the impression of a live perfor-

mance and interaction of the musicians. Potential exists for dramatic and

creative dimensions in altering the realities of sound quality and dynamic-

level relationships, or this can cause a desired live-sounding recording to

be distorted.

With sound-source loudness levels carrying characteristic timbres, a psy-

chological effect exists whereby sounds might be imagined to be at the

loudness level of their performance intensity, when actual loudness is very

different. A much greater imagined loudness can occur when a sound is

recorded moving from very soft to very loud, while a compressor holds

loudness almost constant at a low level. Here the timbre of the sound

source, and our knowledge of the amount of energy and expression placed

into the performance, brings an impression of a higher loudness level,

although the actual loudness (amplitude) is markedly different. This effect

can be used to creative advantage to give prominence to a sound, without

increasing its loudness.

Perception of actual loudness level is often mistaken for other things. It is

often easy to confuse the prominence of a musical idea or instrument with

loudness. A sound may be prominent because of some special quality (reg-

ister placement, for instance) while actually being at a lower loudness level

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than other sounds. A sound can be the most prominent in the listener’s

consciousness, while being at a lower dynamic level than other sounds. The

other artistic elements have equal potential to provide outstanding qualities

to the sound, and to cause the sound to stand out of the musical texture.

In similar ways, loudness is often confused with or distorted by the lis-

tener’s attention to certain aspects of a song, by unexpected events in the

music, and by the meaning of a text or the music. The listener may be

drawn to the text of a song, and the singer might be perceived as the loud-

est musical part; while this can be the case, it often is not. This understand-

ing can sometimes allow the recordist to lower the loudness level of the

vocal without moving the attention of the listener.

When something new or unexpected happens in a song, the listener often

shifts attention to it. This can cause the listener to perceive the event as

louder than it actually is. For instance, one might incorrectly perceive the

high hat sound in the second verse of “Let It Be” (

Let It Be version) to be

louder than the voice. In closer listening it is clearly softer. This mispercep-

tion is caused simply because the high hat arrival is attention-getting and a

surprise, since no percussion sounds have preceded it—and also because

the high hat’s environment pulls it across the sound stage and because it is

in a very different pitch area than the lead vocal and piano.

The musical balance graph of Part Two can be used to plan musical bal-

ance relationships, or to take notes during production. While a complete

graph will likely never be created in production practice, beginning record-

ists might ﬁ nd writing out actual relationships helpful in understanding

and planning their early mixes. Most importantly, the graph can help one

to learn to bring focus to loudness alone, and not to confuse other percep-

tions as being loudness related.

Pitch and Sound Quality Concerns in Combining Sound Sources

The mix also combines the sound qualities of sound sources. When sounds

are combined in the mixing process, the timbres of the instruments/voices

are blended. This blending of sound-source timbres can bring sounds to fuse

together into a group, or if handled differently the sound sources can retain

all or some of their unique characters even if they occupy a very similar in

pitch area. Carefully employing the other elements of sound (such as stereo

location, loudness, etc.) can keep similar timbres from fusing in the mix.

The sound quality of the sound source plays a signiﬁ cant role in the suc-

cessful presentation of the musical idea. The instrument or voice’s timbre

is shaped to most effectively present the musical material, and the listener

will ultimately come to identify the musical idea by the instrument (or sing-

er) that delivers the musical idea. This process of shaping the sound quality

of the sources began in tracking, with instrument selection, microphone

selection and placement, performance intensity and expressive qualities

Capturing, Shaping and Creating the Performance

327

of the performance, and perhaps signal processing. Sound sources will

now receive ﬁ nal shaping during mixdown by signal processing (whether

hardware or plug-ins).

This ﬁ nal shaping can be used to enhance the character of the sound, or

to help a sound combine more effectively in the mix. Time, spectrum and

amplitude process can all be employed for these purposes.

The sound quality of sound sources also contains the dimension of envi-

ronmental characteristics. We recall the sound source and its host environ-

ment fuse into a single impression. In this way, the sound qualities of the

environment become a part of the sound qualities of the sound source.

Shaping of environmental characteristics must therefore be viewed from

the perspective of how they impact the sound quality of the source. This

can have a signiﬁ cant impact on the source’s pitch area.

A source’s sound qualities may remain constant throughout the piece, or

the qualities may make sudden changes or be gradually altered in real time

during the mix. Many possibilities exist for shaping and controlling sound

quality.

When instruments and voices get placed in the mix, they should be evalu-

ated for their frequency content. This is composed of the pitch(es) they per-

form plus the spectrum of their timbre (including environmental character-

istics). In this way, all sounds occupy an “area” in the frequency range of

our hearing. This is a bandwidth, of sorts, where the instrument’s sound and

musical material combine and that they occupy. This is the pitch density of

the musical idea. The pitch densities of all of the sound sources combine to

create the timbral balance, or the “spectrum” of the overall texture.

It is common for some types of music to emphasize certain pitch regis-

ters over others. For example, the rhythm section of the typical rock band

will have the bulk of its pitch-plus-timbre information (or pitch area) in the

“low,” “low-mid,” and “mid” ranges. The timbral balance is weighted in

these low-frequency ranges, and instruments and voices performing above

these registers occupy a very different pitch area and are easily perceived

even when performing at lower dynamic levels or placed in the same loca-

tions on the sound stage. Thus, when sounds are combined, a source’s

pitch area can be exploited to bring the source to blend with others or to be