mentioned article by Kaberry (1957) on ‘primitive state’ based on her work in
Cameroon, by Czekanowski (1961) on ‘pastoralist states’ in the Interlacustrine region,
monographs by Malowist (1964; cf. Tymowski 1967) on western Sudan, Kochakova
(1968, cf. 1978) on the Yoruba ‘city-states’, Beattie (1971) on Nyoro (who shifted to
the state after he used ‘kingdom’ in his earlier monograph). Apart stand Goody’s
(1971; cf. Terray 1973) general theoretical contribution and de Heusch’s (1972)
monograph on the drunken king and state origins. The historians Holt (1970)
described the early colonial resistance state in the Sudan, Mudandagizi and
Rwamukumbi (1974) the personal dependence in the Rwandese state, Terray (1974)
Gyaman in Côte d’Ivoire (cf. his ultimate ‘return’ to kingdom term in Terray 1995)
and Miller (1976) ‘early Mbundu states’ in Angola.
After The Early State there is visible shift towards the use of the concept of
‘state’ or ‘early state’ also among anthropologists, archaeologists and historians of
Africa. One should mention a general discussion by Claessen (1981), the special
number of Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines on African state systems (1982), edited
volumes by Bazin and Terray (1982), Eisenstadt et al (1988), the general
archeological treatise on African civilizations by Connah (1987), works by O’Fahey
(1980) on Darfur, Piault (1982) on the genesis of Kabi, monographs by Adamowicz
(1992) on Great Zimbabwe and Waliński (1996) on Zulu. The series of volumes on
early states, edited by Claessen and his collaborators between 1978 and 1996, have
contained analyses of a number of African cases
7
. The Polish historian Michał
Tymowski (in Claessen, Smith and van de Velde 1985, in Claessen and van de Velde
1987,1991) wrote on ‘political organisation’ in western Africa and finally published a
whole synthetising volume The States of Pre-colonial Africa (Tymowski 1999).
Some authors avoid using state (as well as chiefdom, kingdom or empire) by
either referring to government (Smith 1960 on Zazzau, Mair (1962) on eastern
Africa), leadership (Shack and Cohen 1979), political organization or political system
(Trouwborst 1962 on Burundi, Kaboré (1962, 1968) on Mossi, Stevenson (1968) on
tropical Africa, Ndaywel è Nziem 1992 on Luba and Lunda). Paul Nkwi (1976), an
eminent political anthropologist from Cameroon, chose to write on ‘traditional
government’ and ‘political institutions’ among the
Kom (i.e not Kom chiefdom or
Kom kingdom!).
For a while African traditional centralized politics was seen as feudal. The
hypothesis was suggested more generally by Maquet (1961b), and applied by
Czekanowski (1961) and Steinhart (1967) on the Interlacustrine region, by Kaboré
(1962) on ‘feudal character’ of the Mossi ‘political system’, by Beattie (1964) on
Bunyoro, by Lombard (1965) on Bariba ‘feudal type structures’, by Cohen (1966) on
Bornu, by Ghislain (1970) on Burundi. Goody (1963, 1971) refuted it effectively, at
least for the western part of Africa. Some authors, on the contrary, chose not to
characterize polities studied by them. They just use the name of the polity. Cuvelier
and Jadin (1954) wrote on ancient Congo, Southall (1956) on ‘domination’ in Alur
society, Egharebva (1960) on Benin, Smith (1960) on government in Zazzau, Skinner
(1964) on political development of the Mossi, Cohen (1966) wrote on Bornu, Polanyi
(1966) on Dahomey, Levtzion (1973) on ancient Ghana and Mali, Wilks (1975 on
7
The reader is referred to Claessen and Skalník 1978, 1981, Claessen, Smith and van de Velde 1985,
Claessen and van de Velde 1987 and 1991, Claessen and Oosten 1996.
5