PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Handshaking, Gender, Personality, and First Impressions
William F. Chaplin, Jeffrey B. Phillips, Jonathan D. Brown, Nancy R. Cianton, and Jennifer L. Stein
University of Alabama
Although people's handshakes are thought to reflect their personality and influence our first impressions
of them, these relations have seldom been formalLy investigated. One hundred twelve participants had
their hand shaken twice by 4 trained coders (2 men and 2 women) and completed 4 personality measures.
The participants' handshakes were stable and consistent across time and coders. There were also gender
differences on most of the handshaking characteristics. A firm handshake was related positively to
extraversion and emotional expressiveness and negatively to shyness and neuroticisin; it was also
positively related to openness to experience, but only for women. Finally, handshake characteristics were
•related to the impressions of the participants formed by the coders. These results demonstrate that
personality traits, assessed through self-report, can predict specific behaviors assessed by trained
observers. The pattern of relations among openness, gender, handshaking, and first impressions suggests
that a firm handshake may be an effective form of self-promotion for women.
Handshaking is a common greeting behavior and is often one of
the first observations that individuals make of each other upon
meeting. Thus, the handshake may be a basis for some of the initial
impressions that an individual forms about another. Although
handshakes are anecdotally believed to communicate information
about a person's personality, little systematic research has been
done on the relation between handshaking and personality. Indeed,
the extent to which handshaking is sufficiently stable across time
and consistent across situations to reflect stable individual differ-
ences is largely unknown. Handshaking has also historically been
more common among men than it has been among women or
between men and women. However, we know little about gender
differences in handshaking characteristics or about how gender
may be involved in relations between personality, initial impres-
sions,
and handshaking. The purpose of the present research is to
assess the generalizability of some characteristics of handshaking
behavior across time and gender; to test some hypotheses about the
relations among handshaking dimensions, personality, and gender;
and to evaluate the relation between handshaking dimensions and
initial impressions formed about strangers.
William F. Chaplin, Jeffrey B. Phillips, Jonathan D. Brown, Nancy R.
Cianton, and Jennifer L. Stein, Department of Psychology, University of
Alabama.
We wish to thank Karma W. Davidson, Lewis R. Goldberg, James C.
Hamilton, and Virginia M. Sparrow for their helpful comments on this
article. The analysis of the data on which this manuscript is based was done
while William F. Chaplin was visiting Phillips University in Marburg,
Germany, as an exchange professor. A longer and more detailed version of
this article is available from William F. Chaplin.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to William
F. Chaplin, Department of Psychology, University of Alabama, Box
870348,
Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487. Electronic mail may be sent to
wchaplin® gp.as.ua.edu.
Characteristics of Handshaking
Handshakes can differ in a variety of ways. There is an exten-
sive literature on handshaking in books on etiquette (e.g., Post,
1934;
Reid, 1955; Vanderbilt, 1957) that refer to a number of
dimensions on which handshakes differ, such as limp versus firm,
dry versus clammy, or warm versus cold. Accompanying features,
such as eye contact and skin texture, are also mentioned. Within
the scientific literature, the only serious mention of handshaking
characteristics can be found in the classic work by Allport and
Vernon
(1933,
p. 34) on expressive movements, in which the
authors briefly discuss individual differences in the dimensions of
strength, duration, vigor, and grip, as well as differences in how
the hand is offered.
Handshaking has historically been viewed as a male activity.
Although probably apocryphal, legends about handshaking imply
that the custom originated to provide a signal between male
combatants that they would be nonaggressive (Eichler, 1937).
Regardless of the accuracy of these legends, books on etiquette
have clearly emphasized a gender difference in handshaking (e.g.,
Vanderbilt, 1957), in which men are expected to shake hands more
frequently than women (Post, 1934).
Handshaking and Personality
There is a widespread belief that an individual's handshake
reveals much about that person's personality. Vanderbilt (1957)
suggested the trait-like properties of a handshake and its relation to
personality: "A handshake is as much a part of personality as the
way we walk, and although we may modify and improve a poor
handshake if someone calls our attention to it, it will still usually
be just like us, assured or timid, warm or cool" (p. 185). The
predictions about the relation between handshaking characteristics
and personality traits made by experts on the etiquette of hand-
Journal of Personality sod Social Psychology, 2000, Vol. 79, No. I,
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7
Copyright 2000 by
UK
American Psychological Association, inc. OO22-35!*O0/$5,OO DOJ: 10.1C
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110
HANDSHAKING AND PERSONALITY
111
shaking have a compelling face validity. However, there has been
little systematic empirical study of the handshaking-personality
relation. Thus, the validity of these conjectures is largely unknown.
Indeed, a search of literature revealed only three articles, all
studies conducted in Sweden by the same first author, that empir-
ically address the relation between personality traits and handshak-
ing characteristics.
One study (Astroem, Thorell, Holmlund, & d'EUa, 1993) was
restricted to 29 psychiatric inpatients, so its generality is somewhat
limited. A second study (Astroem, 1994) focused on normal adults
and included 25 men and 25 women. However, the handshakes
were initiated and evaluated by only one male experimenter who
assessed all the participants. The handshakes were rated on four
dimensions: temperature, dryness, strength, and consistency of
grip.
In addition, the vigor was assessed with a hand dynamometer,
and eye contact was assessed by an independent rater. A variety of
personality variables were assessed using a Swedish personality
inventory based on Murray's theory of needs called the Cecarec
Marke Personality Schedule {Cecarec & Marke, 1968). The results
of this study suggested that temperature was related to rational
dominance in women but not men, whereas dryness was related to
sociability in men but not women. The most consistent findings
were obtained for the strength of the handshake, which was pos-
itively correlated with aggression, dominance, exhibition, and ra-
tional dominance, and negatively correlated with sociability and
defense of status (interpreted by the author as neuroticism). As-
troem (1994) concluded, "As far as is known, this study is the first
one confirming some theses of the conventional wisdom which
hold that a handshake provides information on character" (p. 889).
The final study (Astroem & Thorell, 1996) did not directly assess
handshaking-personality relations, but was based on interviews
with 47 individuals (therapists, clergyman, and car salesmen) who
were thought to be experienced at engaging in and interpreting
handshaking. The authors concluded that the inferences of the
experienced handshakers were consistent with the empirical find-
ings in their previous studies.
Handshaking and First Impressions
Regardless of any empirical support for a relation between
handshaking and personality, it is generally believed that the
handshake is an important component of the first impression that
one forms of a person. This belief
is
evidenced in the large number
of professional and business training seminars (e.g., Leader-
ship Skills Inc., http://www.etiquette42day.com; Protocol School
of Palm Beach, http://www.psopb.com; Polished Professionals,
http://www.polishedprofessionals.com) that advertise proper hand-
shaking as a component in their curriculum. However, empirical
studies of the relation between handshaking characteristics and the
initial impression or evaluation of a person are lacking.
In many circumstances a handshake provides an initial, stan-
dardized behavior sample from a person one is meeting for the first
time.
Moreover, nearly everyone will have an extensive set of
handshake observations in their memory against which new hand-
shakes can be compared and evaluated. Thus, it is reasonable to
expect that a handshake might have an impact on the first impres-
sion one forms of an individual's personality. However, recent
studies on the relation between specific behavioral cues and per-
sonality inferences (e.g., Borkenau & Liebler, 1992; Gangestad,
Simpson, DiGeronimo, & Biek, 1992) have not included a hand-
shake in their repertoire of behavioral cues, so this conjecture
remains untested.
The Present Study
Our study is designed to overcome some of the limitations of
previous research and was guided by the consistent, but untested,
beliefs about handshaking that we found is the literature on hand-
shaking etiquette. We selected eight characteristics of handshaking
that were frequently mentioned or implied by the existing litera-
ture.
These characteristics were dryness, temperature, texture (to
differentiate the cold, clammy handshake from the warm, dry one;
Vanderbilt, 1957), strength, vigor, completeness of grip, duration
(to differentiate the firm handshake from the boneless, limp one;
Reid, 1955), and eye contact.
On the basis of the handshaking literature and the findings of
Astroem and his colleagues (Astroem, 1994; Astroem & Thorell,
1996;
Astroem et al., 1993), we selected nine personality dimen-
sions to assess in our study. The view that good handshakes
communicate sociability, friendliness, and dominance, whereas
poor handshakes communicate social introversion, shyness, and
neuroticism led us to select the Big Five Factors of Extraversion,
Agreeableness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience as pos-
sible correlates of handshaking. We also included Conscientious-
ness to complete a broad representation of personality in our study.
We supplemented the Big Five with an assessment of Shyness
(Cheek & Buss, 1981), Emotional Expressiveness (Friedman,
Prince, Riggio, & DiMatteo, 1980), and Positive and Negative
Affect (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988).
One of the major goals of this study is to assess the consistency
of an individual's handshake. Although Astroem et al. (1993)
reported some reliability in the assessment of handshaking dimen-
sions,
his studies did not include a systematic assessment of
handshakes across time or situations. Although the situation in the
present study is limited to strangers participating in an experiment,
we systematically assess the generalizability of handshakes across
a 2 (times: greeting the participant and thanking the participant at
the end of the experiment) x 2 (gender male and female handshake
coders) x 2 (individual coders within each gender) design. Thus
each participant's handshake is rated a total of eight times during
the entire study.
A second goal of the study is to describe any gender differences
in the characteristics of handshakes. We expected that women's
handshakes would be less strong, less vigorous, have a less com-
plete grip, and be of shorter duration then men's handshakes. We
expected the texture of men's handshakes to be rougher than
women's, but on the basis of the general literature about eye
contact (e.g., Argyle
&,
Dean, 1965), we expected women to have
more eye contact than men. We did not expect any gender differ-
ences on dryness or temperature.
A third goal of this study is to assess the relation between
personality characteristics and handshaking characteristics. We
intend to assess these relations in general, but on the basis of
Astroem's (1994) finding that some of the relations between
handshaking characteristics and personality differed for men and
women, we will also consider the moderating effect of gender on
these relations. In addition, because the handshake coders were
aware of the participants' gender while evaluating the handshakes,
112
CHAPLIN, PHILLIPS, BROWN, CLANTON, AND STEIN
we will also assess the relation between handshaking and person-
ality after statistically controlling for gender. The purpose of this
analysis is to assess the extent to which any handshake-personality
relations might be a spurious function of the influence of gender on
the coder's ratings of the handshakes and the relation between
gender and some of the personality variables.
Our final goal is to assess the relation between a person's
handshaking characteristics and the initial impression that person
makes on others. To obtain the initial impression, we asked each of
the handshake coders to rate each participant on scales that corre-
spond to the nine personality variables assessed in this study.
Because of the influence of general factors, such as evaluation, on
ratings of strangers (e.g., Paunonen, 1991), we recognize that the
ratings of the coders on the different personality dimensions may
not be highly differentiated We will thus consider combining the
ratings on different dimensions into more general composites
reflecting an overall positive or negative impression of the partic-
ipant. We expect that handshakes that are stronger, longer lasting,
warmer, drier, more vigorous, with a more complete grip and more
eye contact will result in a more favorable impression. We will
again consider the moderating and possible confounding role of
gender in these evaluations.
Method
Participants
One hundred twelve
(48 men and 64
women) college undergraduates
were offered course credit
to
participate
in
this study.
Raters
Four advanced psychology undergraduates
(2
men and
2
women) served
as experimenters and were trained
as
handshake coders
in
this study.
The
coders are the last four authors
of
this article. Thus, they were not blind
to
the general hypotheses about
the
relation between personality
and
hand-
shaking characteristics. However,
the
focus
of
the coder's work until
the
study was completed was on developing agreement about the coding
of
the
characteristics
of
the handshakes and
on
conducting the research. Detailed
discussions
of the
findings
and the
conceptual contributions
of
these
individuals
to
the interpretation
of
the results occurred after the data were
collected. Also, other than handing the rating scales
to
the participants,
the
coders were completely uninvolved
in
obtaining these data
and
were
unaware
of
the participants' scores on the self-report personality measures.
Finally,
the
decision
to
obtain
the
coders' impressions
of
the participants'
personality
was
made
at the
last minute,
and the
coders were unaware
of
the hypotheses regarding their impressions until after these data were
collected.
Measures
Handshake ratings.
The
raters assessed
the
eight handshake charac-
teristics on 5-point rating scales
as
follows: completeness
of
grip(l
-
very
incomplete,
5 -
fall),
temperature
(1 =
cold,
5 =
warm), dryness
(1 =
damp,
5 -
dry), strength (1
=
weak,
5 =
strong), duration (1
=
brief,
5 -
long),
vigor
(1
~
low,
5 »
high), texture (1
=
soft, 5
=
rough), eye contact
(1
=
none,
5 =
direct).
Personality ratings.
The
handshake coders made global ratings
on a
5-point scale
of
each participant's personality on eight dimensions. Five
of
the dimensions represented
the Big
Five (Extraversion, Agreeableness,
Conscientiousness, Neuroticism,
and
Openness
to
Experience),
One di-
mension concerned General Affect, ranging from
1
(negative)
to 5
(posi-
tive).
Another dimension concerned Shyness
and a
final dimension
con-
cerned Emotional Expressiveness, ranging from
1 (not
skilled)
to 5
(stilted).
Big Five Inventory~44 (BFI-44). The BFI-44 (Benet-Martinez & John,
1998)
is a
44-item, self-report inventory designed
to
assess
the Big
Five
Factors
of
personality. Eight items assess Estraversioa,
9
items assess
Agreeableness,
9
items assess Conscientiousness,
8
items assess Neuroti-
cism,
and
10 items assess Openness
to
Experience.
Positive
and
Negative Affect Scales (PANAS).
The
PANAS (Watson,
Clark,
&
Tellegen, 1988) consists
of 20
adjectives that
are
rated
on a
5-point scale, ranging from 1 (very slightly
or
not
at
all)
to 5
(extremely),
concerning
how a
person feels. Various time frames
can be
used
for the
ratings.
In
this study,
we
asked participants
to
rate
how
they "generally
feel."
Ten of
the items concern Positive Affect
and
10 concern Negative
Affect. The two scales
are
relatively independent.
Revised Cheek
and
Buss Shyness Scale (RCBS).
The
RCBS
is a 13-
item scale that assesses Shyness (Cheek & Briggs, 1990).
It
is
a
revision of
the original 9-item Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale (Cheek
&
Buss, 1981).
Affective Communication Test (ACT), This
is a
13-item scale devel-
oped
by
Friedman, Prince, Riggio, and DiMatteo (1980)
to
assess nonver-
bal Emotional Expressiveness.
Rater Training
Before the study began
the
four raters received 1 month
of
training
and
practice
in
shaking hands
and
evaluating
the
handshakes.
In the
initial
training sessions the raters practiced offering their hand
in a
neutral way
to
initiate
a
handshake.
The
hand was extended straight
out
from
the
waist
with the palm facing
to
the left and the thumb raised
at a
45-degree angle.
On contact with
an
individual's hand,
the
handshakers closed their hand
around the other's hand, but waited
for
the other
to
initiate the strength
of
die grip and the upward and downward shaking. In addition, the raters were
instructed
to
release their grip only when the participant began
to
relax
his
or
her
grip
or
otherwise showed signs
of
wishing
to
terminate
the
hand-
shake. Raters practiced their handshaking technique
on
each other
and on
other individuals until
we
were satisfied that each
had
mastered
the
technique.
The next phase
of
training
was
understanding
the
eight handshaking
dimensions included
in the
study
and
attaining agreement about those
dimensions on handshakes that varied on the dimensions. Definitions of the
dimensions were provided and extreme examples
of
each dimension were
illustrated using
a
handshake. Individuals were then recruited
to
shake
hands with the raters, with the instructions to try
to
shake hands in the same
way with
all
four coders. Coders then rated the practice handshakes
on all
eight dimensions,
and
discrepancies
in the
ratings were discussed.
In
the
final training sessions, handshake ratings were obtained
for 20
practice individuals;
and
interrater correlations, coefficient alpha,
and
corrected rater
to
total correlations were calculated.
The
interrater corre-
lations ranged from
.40 to ,90
across
all
pairs
of
raters
on all
eight
dimensions. Coefficient alpha, totaled across
the
four raters, ranged from
.60 (temperature)
to .85
(strength) across
all
eight dimensions.
All of the
rater
to
total correlations were positive
and
greater than .20. These values
were viewed
as
acceptable
for
using
the
raters
to
assess
the
handshake
characteristics.
The
raters
did not
receive
any
special training
for the
personality ratings other than being told
a
brief definition
of
each
of
Die
eight personality dimensions that they rated.
Procedure
Participants were recruited from introductory psychology classes
for a
study entitled "Personality Questionnaires." They obtained
one of
three
required experimental credits
for
participating.
The
participants were
scheduled
in
groups
of
four
and
were initially asked
to
come
to a
room
in
which they waited until
all 4
participants arrived. When
the
participants
HANDSHAKING AND PERSONALITY 113
arrived, they were greeted
by an
experimenter
and
given
a
sheet
of
paper
on which
the
following description
of
the experiment appeared:
Explanation
of
the Personality Questionnaires Experiment
(Separate Condition)
One common method
for
assessing personality, attitudes, and beliefs
is
to ask
people
to
describe their thoughts, behaviors, and feelings
on
questionnaires. Often
a
large number
of
questionnaires
are
adminis-
tered together in
a
single packet. A possible problem with this method
is that how
a
person answers questions
on
one questionnaire may
be
affected
by
their answers
to
other questionnaires. The purpose
of
this
study
is to try to
find
out if
people tend
to
answer questionnaires
differently depending upon whether
the
questionnaires
are
given
together
in the
same packet
or
administered separately.
You are
participating
in the
condition where
the
questionnaires
are
adminis-
tered separately.
In this condition
we
will
ask you to
complete four brief personality
questionnaires. Bach questionnaire will be administered
by a
separate
experimenter
in a
separate room. To emphasize the separateness, each
experimenter will greet you as though you were coming to them for an
individual experiment. So, they will introduce themselves, shake your
hand,
ask
your name,
and ask you to
come into
the
room where
you
will
be
given one questionnaire. This will happen four times during
the experiment.
(In the
"together" condition
the
subjects will also
come
to
this room and be greeted
by
one
of
the same experimenters,
but would complete
all the
questionnaires
in one
room
at the
same
time.)
So after you have read and signed the informed consent form you will
be given
a
list with four letters
on it: A, B, C,
and D. When
you are
instructed
to do so, go to
room
235 and
find
the
experimenter
and
room with the first letter on your list; when you are finished with that
questionnaire you will
be
told
to
go
to
the experimenter with the next
letter
on the
list
and so on.
It is important that you answer the questions on each questionnaire
as
truthfully and carefully
as
possible.
Thank you very much
for
participating in this experiment. The results
will be useful
for
helping
us
better understand how people respond
to
psychological measures.
The purpose
of
this description was to provide
a
cover story for why
the
participants would
be
administered four brief questionnaires
by
four sep-
arate experimenters
and why so
much handshaking would occur.
The
experimenter asked
if the
participants
had any
questions, reemphasizing
that
the
participants should think
of
their experience
as
four separate
experiments
and
that they would
be
formally greeted with
and
dismissed
with handshakes
and
other formalities
by the
experimenters
"to
reinforce
the participants' experience
of
separateness."
The participants then went
to
the experimental room, which consisted of
a large central room
and
smaller rooms along
its
sides. Each
of
the four
experimenters
was
standing next
to one of the
smaller rooms,
and the
participants were directed
to
the experimenter who matched the first letter
on the list they had been given. Each experimenter greeted
a
participant by
shaking
his or her
hand
and
then asked
the
participant
to
come into
the
smaller room, sit down
at a
desk, and complete one
of
the four personality
questionnaires. During this time,
the
experimenters rated the participant's
handshake
on
the eight dimensions and also rated their impressions
of
the
participant's personality
on the
eight global rating scales. When
a
partic-
ipant had finished completing the first questionnaire, he or she was thanked
by the experimenter, who again shook the participant's hand and asked the
participant to go back into the large room, have
a
seat, and wait
for
all
the
participants to finish. The experimenter then rated the second handshake
on
the eight handshake scales.
After
all
the participants finished the first questionnaire, they were sent
to the second experimenter on the list. The process was repeated until each
participant
had
shaken hands twice with
all
four experimenters
and
com-
pleted all four questionnaires. Different experimenters administered differ-
ent questionnaires across
the
experimental sessions. The participants were
then given their credit slips, asked
if
they had any questions
or
comments
about
the
experiment,
and
told
a
phone number
and
individual
to
call
if
they wanted
to
know more about the experiment
or
any
of
the results.
No
participants indicated
any
suspiciousness about
the
handshaking.
Results
Generalizabilty
of
the
Handshake Ratings
The eight ratings on each handshake dimension represent a 2
(time: 2 occasions) X 2 (gender: male or female coder) X 2
(individual coder: 2 of each gender) generalizability design. Table
1 presents the generalizability coefficients (coefficient alpha) for
the eight scales across the eight ratings. The means and standard
deviations for the eight ratings are also presented. As indicated in
Table 1, the handshake ratings were generally consistent across
time, gender, and individual coders.
Correlations Among
the
Handshaking Dimensions
Table 2 shows the correlations among the average of the eight
ratings for the eight handshaking dimensions. As can be seen in
Table 2, there are substantial correlations among some of the
dimensions. In particular, the dimensions of duration, eye contact,
completeness of grip, strength, and vigor are positively correlated.
We created a composite variable by averaging the ratings of the
five variables and will refer to this variable as the Firm Handshake
Composite. Coefficient alpha for this composite is .88. The re-
mainder of the analyses reported here will be based on this com-
posite. Analyses of the individual handshaking dimensions are
available from William F. Chaplin.
Gender Differences
in
Handshaking
To assess gender differences in handshaking we considered the
gender of the participant, the gender of the coder, and their
interaction in a 2 x 2 mixed analysis of variance. The two levels of
coder ratings were the average of the four ratings made by the two
Table 1
Generalizability Coefficients, Means, and Standard Deviations
for the Eight Handshake Rating Dimensions
Dimension
Strength
Grip
Dryness
Temperature
Vigor
Duration
Eye contact
Texture
M
3.10
3.84
3.30
3.86
1.91
2.21
4.35
2.30
SD
1.40
1.16
1.19
1.01
0.89
0.88
0.72
0.78
Coefficient
alpha
.91
.88
.87
.83
.81
.77
.77
.70
Note.
N =
112. The values are computed across the eight ratings,
2
(time
periods)
X 2
(gender)
X 2
(coders within each gender). Ratings were made
on
a
5-point scale. Dimensions are ordered by the size of coefficient alpha.
114
CHAPLIN, PHILLIPS, BROWN, CLANTON, AND STEIN
Table 2
Correlations Among the Aggregate Handshake Ratings
Dimension 1
1.
Duration
2.
Eye contact
3.
Grip
4.
Strength
5.
Vigor
6. Texture
7.
Temperature
8. Dry ness
—
.39
.60
.84
.79
.35
.24
-.18
.57
.48
.32
.06
.26
.10
—
.80
.51
.32
.33
-.03
—
.76
.39
.37
-.18
—
.22
.27
-.18
—
.22
.32 .01
Note. N = 112. Correlations larger than .19 are significant at the .05 level, two-tailed test.
female coders and the average of the four ratings made by the two
male coders on the Firm Handshake Composite. We found a main
effect for participant gender, F(l, 110) = 43.2, MSE = 0.95, r =
.53,
and a main effect for coder gender, F(l, 110) = 21.5,
MSE— 0.26, but no interaction. Male participants had a higher
score on the Firm Handshake Composite (M = 3.50, SD = 0.67)
than female participants (M = 2.60, SD = 0.70). Likewise, the
male coders had a more positive impression of the handshakes they
received (M =-3.10, SD = 1.00) than did the female coders
(M
—
2.80, SD = 0.76). However, the male and female coders still
exhibited substantial agreement in their composite ratings. The
correlation between the composite based on the female coders and
the composite based on the male coders is .69.
Handshaking and Personality
Correlations between the personality scales and the handshak-
ing dimensions. Table 3 presents the simple correlations between
the personality scales and the Firm Handshake Composite. These
correlations suggest that individuals whose handshakes are firmer
(i.e.,
have a more complete grip, are stronger, more vigorous,
longer in duration, and associated with more eye contact) are more
extraverted and open to experience and are less neurotic and shy.
The effect of controlling for gender on the handshaking-
personality relation. We also assessed whether the associations
between the Firm Handshake Composite and personality could be
Table 3
Correlations Between the Firm Handshake Composite
and the Personality Scales
Personality scale
Firm Handshake
Composite
Shyness
Neuroticism
Openness
Extraversion
Emotional Expression
Positive Affect
Negative Affect
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
-.29
-.24
.20
.19
.16
.14
-.09
-.08
-.06
Note. N= 112. Correlations larger than.19 are significant at the .05 level,
two-tailed test Dimensions are ordered by the magnitude of their correla-
tion with the Firm Handshake Composite.
attributed to the mutual influence of gender on both variables.
Thus,
we calculated the partial correlations between the Firm
Handshake Composite and personality after controlling for gender.
Interestingly, the partial correlation between the Firm Handshake
Composite and Extraversion is larger (.31 vs. .19) after gender was
controlled for. This was also true for Emotional Expression
(.31
vs.
.16) and for Shyness (—.35 vs. —.29). The relation between
Neuroticism and the Firm Handshake Composite was reduced after
partialling out gender (-.12 vs. -.24). For Openness to Experi-
ence,
the relation was essentially unchanged (.19 vs. .20).
The moderating effect of participant gender on
the
personality-
handshaking relation. We also considered the possibility that the
relation between personality and handshaking characteristics
would be different for men and women. We evaluated the mod-
erating effect of gender on the personality-handshaking relation
by using hierarchical regression analysis to assess the contribution
of the partialled product of Gender x Firm Handshake (with
gender and firm handshake controlled) to predicting each of the
nine personality variables. We found a significant moderating
effect of gender on the relation between the Firm Handshake
Composite and Openness to Experience (semi-partial correla-
tion = .18), r(108) = 2.18, p -
.031.
A plot of the regression line
for predicting Openness to Experience from the Firm Handshake
Composite separately for men and women indicated that women
who had a firmer handshake were more open to experience (re-
gression coefficient = .32). For men, there was little relation
between their handshake and how open they were (regression
coefficient = -.06).
Handshaking and First Impressions
In addition to rating (he handshaking characteristics of the
participants, the coders also rated each participant's personality on
eight dimensions that corresponded to the personality scales the
participant had completed. The coders exhibited a reasonable
degree of consistency in their personality ratings across the 112
participants (coefficient alphas ranged from .37 to .65, and all the
corrected coder-to-total ratings were positive). Thus, we aggre-
gated the ratings across the four coders. However, we found that
the aggregate of the coders' personality ratings on the eight scales
were substantially correlated (all correlations were positive and
ranged from .21 to .92). As we expected, the coders, who did not
know the participants, appear to have based their ratings on a
general impression factor, such as evaluation. If a participant made
HANDSHAKING AND PERSONALITY 115
a good impression, the participant tended to be rated higher on
extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, emotional stabil-
ity, openness, emotional expression, outgoingness (the opposite of
shyness), and positive affect. A poor impression tended to elicit
lower evaluations on these dimensions. Thus, we elected to form a
composite of the eight personality ratings (after reverse scoring the
Shyness scale), which we named the First Impression Composite.
Coefficient alpha for this First Impression Composite across the
eight personality scales was .92.
This composite is essentially uncorrelated with participant gen-
der (r — .05). However, it was correlated with several of the
self-report personality scales; specifically, Extraversion {r = .35),
Emotional Expressiveness (r = .37) and Shyness (r = —.36).
Interestingly, we also found that there was an interaction between
gender and Openness for predicting the First Impression Compos-
ite (the semipartial r for the interaction between gender and Open-
ness for predicting the impression is .20), f(108) = 2.13, p
—
.04.
To interpret this interaction we examined the relation between
Openness and First Impression separately for men and women. For
women. Openness is positively related to First Impression (regres-
sion coefficient = .26), r(62) = 1.82, p = .07, whereas for men
Openness is negatively related to First Impression, although this
relation is weaker (regression coefficient = -.22), r(46)
—
-1.30,
p
—
.20. Thus, women who are more open make a more favorable
impression, whereas more open men make a slightly poorer im-
pression. The correlation between the First Impression Composite
and the Firm Handshake Composite is .56. This relation is con-
sistent across the total sample and for male and female participants
considered separately. It is also consistent across the male and
female coders.
Discussion
Summary and Interpretation of the Results
We found that an individual's handshake is stable across time
and consistent across gender. We also found that five of the eight
handshaking characteristics that we studied covaried. These five
characteristics (strength, vigor, duration, eye contact, and com-
pleteness of grip) represent what the literature on handshaking
etiquette refers to as a firm handshake, and we focused our
analyses on this composite. We found that men's and women's
handshakes differ on most of the dimensions we studied and on the
Firm Handshake Composite. Specifically, the male participants'
handshakes were generally viewed as firmer.
A person's handshake is related to some aspects of his or her
personality. Specifically, an individual with a firm handshake is
more extraverted and open to experience and less neurotic and shy.
We find these correlations persuasive, because the source of data
for the handshakes (trained coders) is independent of the source of
data for the personality variables (multi-item, self-report scales).
We were concerned that the relation of gender to handshaking and
to personality might be the basis for these results. However, when
we partialed gender for these correlations, the partial correlations
between a firm handshake and extraversion, shyness, and emo-
tional expressiveness were larger than the simple correlations. This
suggests that those aspects of handshaking that are related to
gender are not the basis for handshaking's relation to these per-
sonality variables. Indeed, for extraversion, shyness, and emo-
tional expressiveness, gender operates to suppress some of the
handshaking variance that is unrelated to these characteristics.
Only the relation between neuroticism and handshaking can be
partially explained by a mutual association with gender. Finally,
we also found that the general relation between Openness and a
firm handshake is complicated by a moderating effect of gender.
Specifically, it was only for the women participants that Openness
is related to a firm handshake; women who are more open to
experience have a firmer handshake than women who are less
open.
Regardless of the accuracy of the impressions formed about
individuals on the basis of their handshake, the literature on
handshaking etiquette and business protocol strongly suggests that
a handshake has a substantial impact on how people evaluate
others. We were somewhat disappointed, although perhaps not
surprised, that our coders did not differentiate among the eight
personality characteristics they rated. Instead these ratings seem to
be influenced by the general first impression the coders formed of
the participants, who were strangers to the coders. This general
impression factor precluded us from exploring the accuracy of the
coder's impressions at predicting the personality measures. In-
stead, we formed a First Impression Composite and restricted our
analyses of the relation between handshaking and personality
inferences to this composite. Consistent with the etiquette and
business literature, we found a substantial relation between the
features that characterize a firm handshake and the coder's first
impression. We did not, however, find any substantial gender
differences in the impressions formed by the coders and the
handshake characteristics.
All of these interpretations must be made in light of the limita-
tions of this study. We view the major limitation as the restricted
situation in which we assessed the handshakes. Specifically, the
handshaking occurred between strangers in a situation in which the
interaction between the individuals was brief and somewhat for-
mal. That is, the coders and participants greeted each other in a
context in which there was no expectation that their interaction
was the beginning of a long association. Thus, the participants
were unlikely to be invested in making a good impression and the
handshakes and greetings were probably more perfunctory than
would be the case in more committed interactions. We believe that
the main result of this limitation is to attenuate the variance on
some of the handshaking characteristics. Thus, any of our null
results might be a function of the lack of variability in the hand-
shakes. Despite this limitation, we did find a number of effects.
Also,
although our experimental situation was limited, it is not an
uncommon situation in which handshaking occurs and in which
impressions are formed.
Implications
What, then, are the implications of these results for the person-
ality literature? Our results are relevant to a number of issues that
have been of central concern to the field of personality. We
consider the long-standing concern about how personality relates
to behavior (e.g., Kenrick & Funder, 1988) and how individuals
form impressions of others (e.g., Kunda & Thagard, 1996). In
addition, we discuss the implications of these results for
self-
promotion strategies that women may use in impression manage-
ment (Rudman, 1998).
116
CHAPLIN, PHILLIPS, BROWN, CLANTON, AND STEIN
The relation between personality and behavior. The extent to
which broad personality traits can predict behavioral characteris-
tics has been a source of some controversy in the field of person-
ality (Paunonen, 1998). Although discussions about this issue have
become more enlightened (e.g., Funder, 1991), demonstrating
clear links between personality traits and observed behavior re-
mains an important goal for the field (Caspi et al., 1997). Our
results provide several examples in which broadly measured per-
sonality traits such as extraversion, neuroticism, and openness, as
well as more specific characteristics such as shyness, are predictive
of handshaking behaviors. Consistent with Epstein's (1983) ob-
servations, we found evidence of this trait-behavior relation after
aggregating our behavioral observations across eight assessments.
We would also emphasize that the behavioral measures were
obtained from a set of coders, whereas the personality measures
were obtained from the participants. Thus, we avoided a common
confound in studies of behavior-personality relations by obtaining
the personality and behavioral measures from separate sources
(Paunonen, 1998).
The basis for personality inferences and impressions of people.
There has long been an interest in the factors that influence
people's initial impressions of each other. In general, these im-
pressions are thought to be influenced by stereotypes based on
factors such as gender or age, base-rate information, beliefs about
trait correspondence, and physical attractiveness, as well as the
specific behaviors we observe. It has proven particularly difficult
to isolate the influence of specific behavioral observations in this
process. A major effort to further the understanding of how be-
havioral observations influence impression formation and person-
ality inference was reported by Borkenau and Liebler (1992). In
addition to assessing how these behaviors influence impressions,
Borkenau and Liebler also evaluated the accuracy of those infer-
ences.
They found some evidence that individuals do use specific
physical and behavioral observations in forming impressions and
that there is some small degree of accuracy in their inferences.
Gangestad, Simpson, DiGeronimo, and BieJc (1992) described a
similar study, but found little correlation between the behavioral
cues they assessed and the inferences made by the participants.
Our results on the relation between handshaking and the coder's
impressions suggest that behavioral cues derived from handshak-
ing can have an influence on impression formation. Of course, our
study was not as controlled as the those described by Borkenau and
Liebler (1992) or Gangestad et al. (1992). Thus, we could not
unconfound all the other information that our coders may have
used in forming their impressions from the handshaking charac-
teristics. Nonetheless, investigators studying the relation between
behavior and impression formation might consider including hand-
shaking in the set of observed behaviors.
Gender and self-promotion. Although we did not find any
direct relation between gender and the favorability of the coders'
first impressions (r = .05), we did find an interaction between
gender and Openness to Experience in relation to the favorability
of the coders' impressions: More open women are perceived more
favorably than less open women, whereas more open men are
perceived slightly less favorably than less open men. We were
intrigued by this finding, especially because of the correlation
between gender and a firm handshake (r
—
.53), the correlation
between a firm handshake and a favorable impression (r = .56),
and the interaction between gender and Openness to Experience
for predicting a firm handshake (semipartial r = .18). We specu-
lated that the relation of
the
Gender x Openness interaction to first
impression might be mediated by the firmness of
these
individual's
handshakes.
To evaluate this speculation we followed the procedures out-
lined by Baron and Kenny (1986) to assess mediation. We found
a strong unique correlation between firmness and impression in the
presence of the Gender X Openness interaction (semipartial r =
.66),
f(107) = 9.5, p <
.000001.
Moreover, the unique relation
between the Gender x Openness interaction and favorable impres-
sion drops to near 0 (semipartial r - .06), f(107) - -0.97, p ~
.33,
in this analysis, suggesting that in this study the relation
between the Gender X Openness interaction and favorable impres-
sion was fully mediated by firmness of handshake. Further support
for a full mediation model comes from path analyses of these
variables. A model with a path from the Gender x Openness
interaction directly to favorable impression and a path through
firmness of handshake fit the observed covariances well, x\l, N
=
10) = 0.234, p = .63. However, the fully mediated model that
eliminates the direct path from Gender X Openness to favorable
impression also fit the observed covariances well, ^(2, N -
10) =
1.212,
p = .55, and the difference between these chi-squares
(.978, df = 1) is not significant (p = .32).
In summary, we found that women who are more liberal, intel-
lectual, and open to new experiences have a firmer handshake and
make a more favorable impression than women who are less open
and have a less firm handshake. For men, the relations among
these variables are substantially weaker, but in the opposite direc-
tion: More open men have a slightly less firm handshake and make
a somewhat poorer impression than less open men. The differential
relation between openness and favorable impressions for men and
women is, in this study, almost completely mediated or "ex-
plained" by the nature of the person's handshake. We emphasize
that these findings were not expected and are in need of replication
(Kerr, 1998). However, the size of the effects in this set of
mediational analyses are, bluntly speaking, huge. Thus, we are
cautiously optimistic about their replication.
We think that the implications of these analyses for
self-
promotion strategies used by women may be important. Women
have historically been at a disadvantage relative to men when
competing for jobs (Broverman, Vogel, Brovennan, Clarkson, &
Rosenkrantz, 1972). Glick, Zion, and Nelson (1988) argued that to
remove this historical disadvantage women need to overcome the
general impression that they are less competent or qualified. How-
ever, overcoming this impression has costs for women, because
behaving assertively and confidently often results in a more neg-
ative impression for a woman relative to an assertive and confident
man (e.g., Butler & Geis, 1990; Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky,
1992).
Our results provide one instance in which women who
exhibit a behavior (a firm handshake) that is more common for
men and that is related to confidence and assertiveness are eval-
uated more positively than are women who exhibit a more typical
feminine handshake. More important, the predicted favorable im-
pression score for women who are 1 standard deviation above the
mean on the firmness of their handshake is 3.61 (on a 5-point
scale),
whereas men who are 1 standard deviation above the mean
on firmness are predicted to score 3.45 on impression. This result
differs from the typical finding that women who exhibit confident
HANDSHAKING AND PERSONALITY
117
behavior that is similar to the behavior of men often make a more
negative impression than the men.
Of course, this finding is limited to situations in which a
handshake is given and probably also to situations in which the
focus is on the person's handshake, as in the present study. But this
situation is similar to the real-world situations of business contacts,
employment, and school interviews. In these situations, giving a
firm handshake may provide an effective initial form of
self-
promotion for women that does not have the costs associated with
other less subtle forms of assertive self-promotion.
Conclusion
It would be something of an overstatement to claim that a
person's handshake provides a window to his or her soul. How-
ever, we did find that handshakes are stable and consistent across
time and gender, at least within the limitations of this study. Also,
handshaking characteristics are related to both objective personal-
ity measures and the impressions people form about each other.
Given what we know about the potency of first impressions, it
might be a good idea to heed the recommendations of experts on
handshaking etiquette and try to make that first handshake a firm
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Received November 8, 1999
Revision received February 7, 2000
Accepted February 7, 2000
