26 | American Federation of Teachers
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2. National Early Literacy Panel, Developing Early Literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy
Panel (Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy, 2008); and National Reading Panel,
Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientic Research Literature on
Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction (Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Child
and Human Development, 2000).
3. National Early Literacy Panel, Developing Early Literacy; National Reading Panel, Teaching
Children to Read; K. Rayner et al., “How Psychological Science Informs the Teaching of Reading,”
Psychological Science in the Public Interest 2 (2001): 31–74; and M. Seidenberg, Language at the
Speed of Sight: How We Read, Why So Many Can’t, and What Can Be Done about It (New York:
Basic Books, 2017).
4. A. Cunningham and K. Stanovich, “What Reading Does for the Mind,” American Educator 22
(1998): 8–15; C. T. Stanley, Y. Petscher, and H. Catts, “A Longitudinal Investigation of Direct and
Indirect Links between Reading Skills in Kindergarten and Reading Comprehension in Tenth
Grade,” Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 31, no. 1 (2018): 133–153; and J.
Wanzek et al., “Current Evidence on the Effects of Intensive Early Reading Interventions,” Journal
of Learning Disabilities 51, no. 6 (2018): 612–624.
5. R. H. Good, D. C. Simmons, and E. Kame’enui, “The Importance and Decision-Making Utility of
a Continuum of Fluency-Based Indicators of Foundational Reading Skills for Third-Grade
High-Stakes Outcomes,” Scientic Studies of Reading 5 (2001): 257–288; and National
Assessment of Educational Progress, “Nation’s Report Card: How Did U.S. Students Perform on
the Most Recent Assessments?,” U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
Statistics, www.nationsreportcard.gov.
6. R. W. Sweet, “The Big Picture: Where We Are Nationally on the Reading Front and How We
Got There,” in The Voice of Evidence in Reading Research, ed. P. McCardle and V. Chhabra
(Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing, 2004), 13–44.
7. National Assessment of Educational Progress, “Nation’s Report Card.”
8. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Program for International Students
Assessment, “Reading Performance,” https://data.oecd.org/pisa/reading-performance-pisa.htm.
9. D. A. Kilpatrick, Essentials of Assessing, Preventing, and Overcoming Reading Difculties
(Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2015); L. Lim et al., “Using the MULTILIT Literacy Instruction Program with
Children Who Have Down Syndrome,” Reading and Writing 32 (2019): 2179–2200; P. G. Mathes
et al., “The Effects of Theoretically Different Instruction and Student Characteristics on the Skills
of Struggling Readers,” Reading Research Quarterly 40 (2005): 148–182; and J. K. Torgesen,
“Avoiding the Devastating Downward Spiral: The Evidence That Early Intervention Prevents
Reading Failure,” American Educator 28, no. 3 (2004): 6–9, 12–13, 17–19, 45–47.
10. B. Foorman et al., Foundational Skills to Support Reading for Understanding in Kindergarten
through 3rd Grade (Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Evaluation and Regional
Assistance, 2016), https://whatworks.ed.gov; and B. Foorman et al., “The Impact of Instructional
Practices in Grades 1 and 2 on Reading and Spelling Achievement in High Poverty Schools,”
Contemporary Educational Psychology 31 (2006): 1–29.
11. H. W. Catts, S. M. Adlof, and S. E. Weismer, “Language Decits in Poor Comprehenders: A
Case for the Simple View of Reading,” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 49,
no. 2 (2006): 278–293; and P. Gough and W. E. Tunmer, “Decoding, Reading, and Reading
Disability,” Remedial and Special Education 7, no. 1 (1986): 6–10.
12. L. Ehri, “Orthographic Mapping in the Acquisition of Sight Word Reading, Spelling Memory,
and Vocabulary Learning,” Scientic Studies of Reading 18 (2014): 5–21; and Kilpatrick, Essentials
of Assessing.
13. L. Ehri et al., “Systematic Phonics Instruction Helps Students Learn to Read: Evidence from the
National Reading Panel’s Meta-Analysis,” Review of Educational Research 71 (2001): 393–447.
14. K. Cain and J. Oakhill, eds., Children’s Comprehension Problems in Oral and Written
Language: A Cognitive Perspective (New York: Guilford, 2007); K. Nation, “Children’s Reading
Comprehension Difculties,” in The Science of Reading: A Handbook, ed. M. J. Snowling and C.
Hulme (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2005), 248–266; and J. Oakhill, K. Cain, and C. Elbro, Understand-
ing and Teaching Reading Comprehension: A Handbook (New York: Routledge, 2015).
15. F. R. Vellutino et al., “Components of Reading Ability: Multivariate Evidence for a Convergent
Skills Model of Reading Development,” Scientic Studies of Reading 11, no. 1 (2007): 3–32.
16. H. Catts et al., “Language Basis of Reading and Reading Disabilities: Evidence from a
Longitudinal Investigation,” Scientic Studies of Reading 3, no. 4 (1999): 331–361.
17. G. Drake and K. Walsh, 2020 Teacher Prep Review: Program Performance in Early Reading
Instruction (Washington, DC: National Council on Teacher Quality, 2020); J. Greenberg, A. McKee,
and K. Walsh, Teacher Prep Review: A Review of the Nation’s Teacher Preparation Programs
(Washington, DC: National Council on Teacher Quality, 2013); L. C. Moats, “What Teachers Don’t
Know and Why They Aren’t Learning It: Addressing the Need for Content and Pedagogy in
Teacher Education,” Australian Journal of Learning Difculties 19 (2014): 1–17; and M. J. Adams
et al., “Comparing Reading Research to Program Design: An Examination of Teachers College
Units of Study,” Student Achievement Partners, 2020, www.achievethecore.org/page/3240/
comparing-reading-research-to-program-design-an-examination-of-teachers-college-units-of-
study.
18. E. Binks-Cantrell et al., “Peter Effect in the Preparation of Reading Teachers,” Scientic Studies
of Reading 16 (2012): 526–536; R. M. Joshi et al., “Do Textbooks Used in University Reading
Education Courses Conform to the Instructional Recommendations of the National Reading
Panel?,” Journal of Learning Disabilities 42 (2009): 458–463; and Adams et al., “Comparing
Reading Research.”
19. Seidenberg, Language at the Speed of Sight.
Endnotes
20. Ehri, “Orthographic Mapping”; Kilpatrick, Essentials of Assessing; and D. Share, “On the Role
of Phonology in Reading Acquisition: The Self-Teaching Hypothesis,” in Explaining Individual
Differences in Reading: Theory and Evidence, ed. S. A. Brady, D. Braze, and C. A. Fowler (New
York: Psychology Press, 2011), 45–68.
21. American Academy of Ophthalmology, “Joint Statement: Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia, and
Vision—Reafrmed 2014,” July 2014, www.aao.org/clinical-statement/
joint-statement-learning-disabilities-dyslexia-vis.
22. L. C. Moats and B. Foorman, “Measuring Teachers’ Content Knowledge of Language and
Reading,” Annals of Dyslexia 53 (2003): 23–45; E. J. Spencer et al., “Phonemic Awareness Skill of
Speech-Language Pathologists and Other Educators,” Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in
Schools 39 (2008): 512–520; and L. Spear-Swerling and P. O. Brucker, “Teacher-Education
Students’ Reading Ability and Their Knowledge about Word Structure,” Teacher Education and
Special Education 29 (2006): 116–126.
23. M. Rossi, S. Martin-Chang, and G. Ouellette, “Exploring the Space between Good and Poor
Spelling: Orthographic Quality and Reading Speed,” Scientic Studies of Reading 23, no. 2
(2019): 192–201.
24. Drake and Walsh, 2020 Teacher Prep Review; Greenberg, McKee, and Walsh, Teacher Prep
Review; and Joshi et al., “Do Textbooks Used?”
25. I. Y. Liberman and A. M. Liberman, “Whole Language v. Code-Emphasis: Underlying
Assumptions and Their Implications for Reading Instruction,” Annals of Dyslexia 40 (1990):
51–76; L. C. Moats, “Can Prevailing Approaches to Reading Instruction Accomplish the Goals of
RTI?,” Perspectives on Language and Literacy 43, no. 3 (Summer 2017): 15–22; and L.
Spear-Swerling, “Structured Literacy and Typical Literacy Practices: Understanding Differences to
Create Instructional Opportunities,” Teaching Exceptional Children 51 (2019): 201–211.
26. Evidence for the use of these programs is found in L. Loewus, “How Reading Is Really Being
Taught,” Education Week, December 3, 2019; examples of programs include L. Calkins, A Guide
to the Reading Workshop: Primary Grades (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2017); I. C. Fountas and
G. S. Pinnell, Guided Reading: Good First Teaching for All Children (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann,
1996); and I. C. Fountas and G. S. Pinnell, Leveled Literacy Intervention (Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann, 2008); and a comparative study of guided reading with another approach is C. A.
Denton et al., “An Experimental Evaluation of Guided Reading and Explicit Interventions for
Primary-Grade Students At-Risk for Reading Difculties,” Journal of Research on Educational
Effectiveness 7, no. 3 (2014): 268–293; and Adams et al., “Comparing Reading Research.”
27. National Assessment of Educational Progress, “NAEP Report Card: Reading; State Average
Scores,” National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, www.
nationsreportcard.gov/reading/states/scores/?grade=4.
28. Adams, Beginning to Read; S. M. Adlof and C. A. Perfetti, “Individual Differences in Word
Learning and Reading Ability,” in Handbook of Language and Literacy: Development and
Disorders, ed. C. A. Stone et al. (New York: Guilford, 2014), 246–264; A. Castles, K. Rastle, and K.
Nation, “Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition from Novice to Expert,” Psychological
Science in the Public Interest 19, no. 1 (2018): 5–51; S. Dehaene, Reading in the Brain: The
Science and Evolution of a Human Invention (New York: Penguin Viking, 2009); J. M. Fletcher et
al., Learning Disabilities: From Identication to Intervention (New York: Guilford, 2019); Kilpatrick,
Essentials of Assessing; L. C. Moats, Speech to Print: Language Essentials for Teachers (Baltimore,
MD: Brookes Publishing, 2020); and Seidenberg, Language at the Speed of Sight.
29. C. Schatschneider et al., “Kindergarten Prediction of Reading Skills: A Longitudinal
Comparative Analysis,” Journal of Educational Psychology 96 (2004): 265–282; and Vellutino et
al., “Components of Reading Ability.”
30. American Academy of Ophthalmology, “Joint Statement.”
31. S. Brady, “Efcacy of Phonics Teaching for Reading Outcomes: Implications from Post-NRP
Research,” in Explaining Individual Differences in Reading, ed. S. Brady, D. Braze, and C. Fowlers
(London: Psychology Press, 2011), 69–96; S. Brady, “The 2003 IDA Denition of Dyslexia: A Call
for Changes,” Perspectives on Language and Literacy 45, no. 1 (2019): 15–21; A. Kjeldsen et al.,
“Gains from Phonological Awareness in Kindergarten Predict Reading Comprehension in Grade
9,” Scientic Studies in Reading 18, no. 6 (2014): 452–468; I. Y. Liberman, D. Shankweiler, and A.
M. Liberman, “The Alphabetic Principle and Learning to Read,” in Phonology and Reading
Disability: Solving the Reading Puzzle, ed. D. Shankweiler and A. Liberman (Ann Arbor, MI:
University of Michigan Press, 1989); and H. S. Scarborough and S. A. Brady, “Toward a Common
Terminology for Talking about Speech and Reading: A Glossary of ‘Phon’ Words and Some Related
Terms,” Journal of Literacy Research 34, no. 3 (2002): 299–336.
32. Fletcher et al., Learning Disabilities.
33. H. Catts et al., “Prevalence and Nature of Late Emerging Poor Readers,” Journal of
Educational Psychology 10 (2012): 166–181; and H. Catts et al., “Early Identication of Reading
Comprehension Difculties,” Journal of Learning Disabilities 49 (2016): 451–465.
34. Cain and Oakhill, Children’s Comprehension Problems; and Fletcher et al., Learning
Disabilities.
35. L. Spear-Swerling, The Power of RTI and Reading Proles: A Blueprint for Solving Reading
Problems (Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing, 2015).
36. E. D. Hirsch, Why Knowledge Matters: Rescuing Our Children from Failed Educational
Theories (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2016); and N. Wexler, The Knowledge Gap:
The Hidden Cause of America’s Broken Education System—and How to Fix It (New York: Penguin
Random House, 2019).
37. D. T. Willingham, “The Usefulness of Brief Instruction in Reading Comprehension Strategies,”
American Educator 30, no. 4 (Winter 2006–2007): 39–50.
38. S. Graham and M. Herbert, Writing to Read: Evidence for How Writing Can Improve Reading
(Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education, 2010).