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WHEN IS A SANDWICH TOO MUCH?
A CRITICAL LOOK AT TEENAGE PARENTHOOD AND ITS IMPACT ON THE LIVES
OF THEIR PARENTS
by
SHIRLEY P. GRANT
A master’s thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Liberal Studies in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts, The City University of New York
2021
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© 2021
SHIRLEY P. GRANT
All Rights Reserved
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When is a Sandwich Too Much?
A Critical Look at Teenage Parenthood and its Impact on the Lives of their Parents
by
Shirley P. Grant
This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in Liberal
Studies in satisfaction of the thesis requirement for the degree of Master of Arts.
______________________ ________________________
Date Roger Hart
Thesis Advisor
______________________ ________________________
Date Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis
Executive Officer
THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK
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ABSTRACT
When is a Sandwich Too Much?
A Critical Look at Teenage Parenthood and its Impact on the Lives of their Parents
by
Shirley P. Grant
Advisor: Roger Hart
The transition into early parenthood also implies a shift to early grandparenthood for the parents
of teenage parents. The stigmas and stereotypes associated with teenage pregnancy and
parenthood are also experienced by their parents for the decisions their children have made.
Furthermore, some of these grandparents are caregivers to aging parents while also parenting
their younger children. These people, recently called, “the club sandwiched” generation, appear
to be experiencing physical, social, economic, and psychological impacts because of their
responsibilities of caring for three generations but have not yet received much attention in
academic literature. Teenage pregnancy can affect any family. It crosses over racial, cultural, and
socio-economic barriers. However, how families address and deal with the circumstances varies
by class, race, and socio- economic status. Family dynamics differ and while similarities may
occur between families of the same race, culture, and socio-economic class, every onset of
teenage pregnancy is unique and affects each family differently. This thesis will attempt to
enrich existing theory and research by critically examining the issue through an investigation of
popular literature, websites, guidance materials, and the author’s own experience over seven
years throughout her transition as the parent of a teenage parent while also caring for her
elementary school-aged son, assisting her now-adult daughter with her two children and raising a
high school-aged son.
Keywords: teenage pregnancy, grandmothers, sandwich generation, club sandwich generation
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank God, my creator and sustainer for wisdom,
knowledge and understanding. Without the guiding presence of the Holy Spirit completion of
this work would not be possible. I am extremely grateful for my thesis advisor, Prof. Roger
Hart, for his invaluable advice, continuous support, and patience during my thesis study. I
appreciate you! I would like to thank Ms. Kathy Koutsis for all of her assistance throughout
the years. You are a priceless resource to the department. I appreciate Dr. Elizabeth
Macaulay-Lewis immensely for granting me permission to return to the program to complete
my studies. I thank Professors Susan Semel and Karen Lyness for writing recommendations
for my admittance into the program. The knowledge I gleaned from them as a non-
matriculated student enhanced my desire to apply for admission. I would also like to thank all
of the magnificent and immensely knowledgeable faculty that instilled, inspired, and
encouraged me in my academic pursuit. I thank Ms. Anne Johnson for her encouragement
and listening ear, as I assisted her in the Financial Aid Office. I would like to thank my
village, too many of you to name but you know who you are, thank you for your love,
laughter, understanding, patience and encouragement. You lift me up when I need you most
and I love you to pieces. To my Bestie for over 30 years, Devon Martin, who knew that
meeting in middle school would have led to a life-long friendship. You are my rock, I love
you big sis. Last but definitely not least, my son, Isaiah, my daughter, Kori, and
granddaughters Kamryn and Kyliegh, the muses behind my research, you guys are the air I
breathe. Thank you for the countless hugs, inspiration, love, and joy you bring to my life!!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
Introduction and Personal Motivations for Research….………………………………………..
Background into the Author’s Reflections on the Initial and Continuing Impacts
of the Birth of Her Granddaughter………………….….……………………………….………
Teenage Pregnancy and Parenthood……….……………………………………………..........
The Sandwich and Club Sandwich Generations…….……………………………………...…
Impact of Early Grandparenthood on Parents Facing Multiple Caregiving Responsibilities…
Family Matters: Conditions That May Influence the Transition Into Teen Pregnancy and
Early Grandparenthood………………………………………………………..........................
Summary and Conclusions……………………………………………………………….……
Implications for Further Research………………………………………………………..........
Recommendations for Education and Social Support….……………………..…...…………..
References…………………………………………………………….……………….............
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND PERSONAL MOTIVATIONS FOR THE RESEARCH
The research included in this body of work focuses on the statistical data surrounding teenage
pregnancy and parenthood, the stigmas and stereotypes both teen parents and their parents face,
and the impact of early grandparenthood on parents facing multiple caregiving responsibilities.
Theory and research are viewed through the scope of the author’s seven-year journey of parenting
a teenage parent into adulthood while raising a younger child.
Seven years ago, the world as I knew it collapsed! It felt as if someone pulled the rug from
underneath my footing and the ground became the only place to catch my fall. A domino effect of
events shattered my world and life as I knew it no longer existed. It began with my mother’s
terminal diagnosis of gastric cancer, followed by my father’s passing on Christmas Eve and less
than three months later my mother’s. Tension at work pushed me to my breaking point which
ultimately led to my decision to resign following my return from family medical leave after caring
for my loved ones and later myself due to the tremendous responsibility in preparing both
homegoing services. And, as if that wasn’t enough for this single mother of two, a few months
later my sixteen-year-old daughter called me into her room to talk, unbeknownst to me, this
particular conversation would drastically alter our lives even further.
A parent is never prepared, no matter the age of their teenage daughter, to hear her utter the words,
“Mom…I’m Pregnant!” The same would be true for the parent of a teenage son who spurts out
the words, “Mom…________ is Pregnant!” Who you are and where you fall in line racially,
socially or economically, has little bearing on the initial shock to your system following those few
life-changing words. There isn’t anything a parent can do in advance to prepare themselves for a
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conversation such as that.
The words that escaped my mouth following my daughter’s opening statement shocked her. All I
said was, “Whatever you decide, I’ll support you!” While I knew that life would be different from
that moment on, I knew that my faith and trust in God would not waiver. However, what I had not
fully anticipated was the severity of the impacts on my social, economic, psychological, and
physical well-being that were certain to follow.
It is my transition into the “club sandwich” generation that ignited my desire to learn more about
it. My life underwent a host of changes when my daughter chose to become a mother. Her decision
pushed me into early grandparenthood and into this generation that I was not prepared for
emotionally, mentally, financially, or physically. The goals and dreams I envisioned for myself
had to be shifted if I wanted to provide my daughter with the opportunity to complete high school
and attend college. If I was going to do this, I needed to get equipped for this unexpected journey.
This yearning to support myself and my family through the newly complex multilayered life, while
offering guidance, information, and resources to others in similar situations, became my driving
force into the complexities those in the sandwich generation face.
This thesis seeks to enrich the existing literature by looking at how the nuances of early
grandparenthood further impact caregivers with multiple caregiving responsibilities in the “club
sandwich” generation. The additional challenges parents face as they find themselves parenting a
teenage parent, assisting with a grandchild, raising other children, and possibly caring for their
aging parents presents a recipe for multiple stress. While the situation may seem overwhelming
and daunting, I hope that this review of the experiences of others in the same situation will, at least
indirectly, reach other grandparents as they manage, and cope with stress, and provide hope along
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the journey to those impacted. Even though there is also, sometimes, an involvement of the
adolescent father's family in offering support to the teenage mother, given the brevity of this thesis,
I am unable to address this.
The Design of the Research
This research began seven years ago. Countless hours were spent researching information via
articles and websites on teenage pregnancy and parenthood, specifically targeting information
relating to parenting teenage parents, impacts of early grandparenthood, and the ‘sandwich’ and
‘club sandwich’ generations. The information was then compared and contrasted with the author’s
lived experience of being thrust into early grandparenthood and the club sandwich generation as
she sought to answer the following specific research questions:
1.!What are some of the specific challenges presented during the transitional phase into early
grandparenthood?
2.!How can parents of teenage parents deal with the challenges and problems created by their
multiple roles?
3.!Does the impact of early grandparenthood influence the life of a parent after the teen parent
becomes an adult?
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CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND INTO THE AUTHOR’S REFLECTIONS ON THE INITIAL
AND CONTINUING IMPACTS OF THE BIRTH OF HER GRANDDAUGHTER
When my daughter shared her pregnancy news with me there were several thoughts, questions,
and concerns circling in my mind. How should I respond? Who should I tell? How will they
respond? How will she finish school or attend college? How will we pay for childcare? Will the
dad be involved? Where will we put a baby? Is there anything I could have done to prevent this?
Below are answers to my initial questions and concerns along with those that arose after my
granddaughter’s birth. My answers were recorded in my journal and were motivational factors for
my research.
First Reaction to Pregnancy News
When my daughter shared the news of her pregnancy with me my initial reaction was one of shock.
During the six months preceding this news, I buried both of my parents within two months of each
other, resigned from my job, and finalized my decision to attend graduate school full-time. The
revelation of her pregnancy and the impending lifestyle changes that were certain to follow ran
through my mind. Thoughts of the future I envisioned for her and myself with my return to school
and plans for her to attend college away from home disappeared in that instant.
First People, I Shared the News With and Their Reactions
The first two people I shared the news with were my significant other of four years, at the time,
and my best friend of 25 years. My significant other and I were contemplating marriage and my
daughter’s pregnancy would impact our decision to move forward with the relationship or not.
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My best friend is more like my big sister. We have shared joys and sorrows and everything in
between. She became pregnant during our junior year of high school and became a teenage mother
during our senior year, the same as my daughter. I knew the advice she could offer would be an
invaluable asset.
My significant other was shocked. As a celibate couple, who was planning to wait until marriage
to have a child of our own (he does not have any), the thought of my teenage daughter being
pregnant took him for a loop. His reaction did not surprise me, it was as expected. My best friend
was a teenage mother so she was not shocked, a little surprised at the thought of my daughter
becoming a mom, but not shocked.
Reactions that Caught Me by Surprise
The reactions that caught me by surprise were not the ones you would imagine, the initial ones
upon hearing the news of the pregnancy, actually those were as expected ranging from shock and
disappointment to sadness and excitement at the thought of another addition to the family,
however, some of the feedback from people concerning my reaction and level of adjustment to the
news was the most astonishing. It was as if some people expected me to be angry, kick my daughter
out, or punish her for choosing to continue with her pregnancy. Those reactions were stunning.
The thought of allowing my daughter to come to her own decision about her body, providing
support and encouragement no matter her choice, bolstering her self-esteem, and helping her create
a new plan for her life and the life of my future grandchild seemed like a foreign concept to several
people.
The reactions from strangers who commented on the beauty of my “daughter” and receiving my
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reply of “Thank you, but she’s my granddaughter,” were very interesting. Some of the comments
were, “Wow, you look so young! You can’t be serious, you don’t look more than twenty-something
yourself. How old is your daughter?” My response was generally, “I’m young but I am not that
young,” or “Thank you! God is good, He keeps me looking young” The looks on their faces
changed as soon as I acknowledged her as my granddaughter instead of my daughter. Some of
their facial expressions became worrisome almost, ones of pity as if they thought my daughter’s
pregnancy was a continued cycle thinking that I, myself, was a teenage mother beforehand. Surely,
I could have acknowledged her as my daughter which seemed acceptable but she wasn’t and so I
didn’t. I lived in my truth, that my daughter was a teenage mother and I was a young grandmother.
As a Christian family, the reactions from our congregation were pretty positive, at least directly
towards my daughter and me. It could be attributed to the grave losses we recently suffered or the
way we held our heads up high and answered questions straightforwardly and without a care. My
position was simple, “She is my daughter and I am supporting her decision, if you have a problem
with it speak to me.” My daughter was well aware that giving up on God and the church was not
an option. We would live in our truth together. My daughter was fearful that people would blame
me, or somehow think that I was a bad parent. I told her we both know that isn’t true so who cares
what they think. Once people realized my position only those of support were expressed to us
personally, comments among certain circles were another story. Even my Pastor took a stand
against those members that spoke negatively to him about her pregnancy. Some members wanted
my daughter to step down from the choir and the media ministry but he refused to do so. He
reiterated that the sin was in the act of fornication but the blessing of the baby was designed by
God.
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My significant other grew up in our church and is an ordained Reverend. People were finally
getting used to the idea of our courtship, with him dating a woman with two kids, from two
different fathers, and now the revelation of my daughter’s pregnancy was added. Comments were
made to him and his family about him “becoming a grandfather before becoming a father.”
Being in a long term relationship where marriage and kids were considered, the notion of becoming
a grandmother before that reality flourished was scary, especially since my significant other did
not have any children. The idea of him becoming a grandparent before becoming a parent
reverberated in my head.
There were a few challenging moments within our relationship surrounding his responses to other
people but he chose us and we are continuing to navigate through life together!
Biggest Challenge I Faced During My Daughter’s Pregnancy
During my daughter’s pregnancy, the biggest challenge was creating space. Physical and mental
space were both needed. Where were we going to put a new baby in our already cramped
cooperative apartment? When I purchased this property ten years ago there were two of us, my
daughter and me. Now there were three of us, including my son, and with the upcoming addition,
the total would rise to four. Mentally, I had to prepare myself for the challenge of being a single
mother of three even though the new addition would be my granddaughter, the primary financial
responsibility, which would rest on my shoulders since my daughter was 16 years old and
unemployed. Gratefully and thankfully we had five months to prepare by the time the news was
shared, which provided time to make the physical and mental adjustments our lifestyle required.
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Shift in Family Dynamics to Accommodate New Role as Grandparent
As a mother, I had to mentally adjust to the idea of my daughter becoming a mother. While I was
not a teen mother, I was still pretty young (22 years old), when my daughter came along, however,
the dynamics were different, I was living in my apartment with minimal financial support from
my parents while my daughter and her child would be living at home with me requiring primary
financial support.
My mother and I had different styles of parenting and when she offered her assistance and support
she eagerly implied that her way was the “right” way which caused a great deal of tension between
us. Those experiences propelled me toward an alternative approach by offering advice and
assistance but not pushing my way as absolute. The lens through which I viewed my teenage
daughter required shifting to account for her new role as mother and mine as mother and
grandmother. It’s a weird dynamic and still warrants mastering but as she matures and her
confidence in her ability to parent increases my concerns seem to diminish. While she is a mother,
I am her mother and the only grown-up in our household. Meaning that she is responsible for her
daughter but I am primarily responsible for all three of the minors in my household.
I wondered how my son would adjust to a new baby in the house since he was the “baby.” My
daughter had a hard time adjusting when my son came along. There was a nine-year difference
between them and jealousy abounded. Honestly, I think the jealousy stopped when she became
pregnant. My son, on the other hand, was super excited to be an uncle, and as it turns out he thinks
the baby is his. No jealously at all, just lots of love, as he enjoys his role as an uncle. My son and
I shared several conversations regarding my daughter’s pregnancy, he was chock full of questions.
Some of them were, “How can she have a baby, isn’t she only a teenager?” “Is she getting married,
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does that make Eric her husband?” I was not prepared for all of them but trained myself quickly
to think on my feet and to answer his questions openly and honestly and within the proper context
for an eight-year-old. The impression that his sister’s pregnancy was a “bad” thing wasn’t one that
I wanted to instill but helping him understand the challenges and sacrifices that come along with
starting a family early were.
Obstacles I Encountered When My Daughter Turned 18
There are a few obstacles that we are beginning to face now that my granddaughter is turning one
in a few months and my daughter is approaching her 18th birthday. The two most pressing
concerns are finances and living arrangements. Financial burdens are an issue now that my
daughter’s social security will stop on her birthday in June (she receives survivor benefits due to
her father’s passing when she was 10 years old from lung cancer). Currently, my daughter works
and is finishing her senior year of high school while I work part-time in the Federal Work-Study
program, while I attend graduate school. My daughter plans to attend a community college in the
fall. Our living arrangements are a major concern since we are living in very close quarters which
can be very frustrating at times. Everyone has their own space but we do not have a living room,
it became the nursery, and we share one bathroom.
Now that my daughter is entering adulthood, there are times, especially lately, where her actions
are those of an adult but without the level of responsibility, maturity, and consideration for others
that goes along with it. She has had it pretty easy and the sense of entitlement that is displayed at
times recently caused me to step back and re-evaluate my role so that she can step up as she enters
into adulthood. It is time for me to relinquish the reigns and allow her to find her way, with
occasional help but not with me shouldering most of the responsibility. I was carrying the majority
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of the load so that she could maintain her teenage life with sports, activities, work, and parenthood
when in actuality her life needs to shift because parenthood warrants that. The overwhelming
feeling of doing it all and feeling underappreciated allowed resentment to creep in. To combat that
required me to pull back and now that I have pulled back a little she has stepped up, which in turn,
has afforded me the freedom to make time for myself.
Co-(Grand)parenting with my Granddaughter’s Father and his Family
Co-parenting with my granddaughter’s paternal family has been challenging at times. For the most
part, it is a blessing because my granddaughter shares time equally with both families ever since
she was two weeks old. In the beginning, it was very rough because I worried a lot when she was
out of our sight but prayers went up and peace came down and at nine months old she was
blossoming and my worries have subsided…a little, lol. The other grandmother and I bumped
heads on a few occasions because of our differing parental styles and the sense of resentment
surrounding my daughter continuing with school and finding a job while her son dropped out of
high school and remains unemployed. Currently, we have developed a rhythm as parents and
grandparents with the commonality that we all desire the best for our shared bundle.!
Has Becoming a Grandparent Changed Me?
Grand-parenting is awesome! Being able to offer love, guidance, and care for my daughter’s child
is a blessing. My parents were amazing grandparents to my children and if I am half as good as
they were then my granddaughter will be a blessed child. As a live-in grandmother who is still
mothering two kids, I am exhausted. Maintaining a home, raising three kids, working, attending
graduate school classes, reading assignments and homework, while teaching Sunday School, being
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a Youth Advisor, Trustee, and member of the women’s ministry at church while finding time for
my relationship and myself is extremely challenging. Some days I am overwhelmed but I am
learning to prioritize the tasks at hand and to make sure that I take some time out for myself because
if I do not replenish myself then I cannot effectively take care of the multiple roles and
responsibilities being a sandwich generation caregiver entail.
Did My Relationship with My Daughter Change?
The shared experience of my daughter’s pregnancy and motherhood has bonded us in a way like
no other. It has given my daughter a perspective into some of the sacrifices that I made as a parent
and hopefully newfound respect. She is a working mom, which has also strengthened our
relationship because now she understands how quickly money comes and goes as well as the
demands of being a working mom and student. It has broadened her horizons and changed our
relationship for the better. Before my daughter’s pregnancy, she was unfocused, angry, and lacked
respect for authority. She lacked motivation and drive. She seemed to be existing with no real
thought for her future. When she became pregnant she found focus, became more excited about
life, and the realization that life is not all about her needs, desires, and wants. Her maturity level
increased and she began thinking beyond herself. Instead of viewing me as the enemy, the person
trying to control her life, the one who knows nothing, she began to listen to the advice I offered,
to seek my opinion about things, and to take school and life a little more seriously.
Goals for the Future
My goal is to be the best parent and grandparent I can be. Realizing that I can be those things and
still have the freedom to fulfill my desires and goals, has however, required some time to figure
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out. Simply understanding that making time for myself isn’t a selfish act, it’s one wrapped in self-
love and that has to be a priority. The key is balance! I’m looking forward to sharing my life with
my significant other and continuing to create a beautiful life despite the curves in the road.
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CHAPTER 3: TEENAGE PREGNANCY AND PARENTHOOD
Teenage Pregnancy
Pregnancy among girls in the age range of 13 to 19 years old is defined by the United Nations
Children’s Fund (UNICEF) as teenage pregnancy. Any pregnancy of a teenage girl that has not
reached the age of legal adulthood, which varies across the world, would also be considered a
teenage pregnancy (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2008).
The United States recorded its largest decline in the teenage pregnancy rate in 2010, when it
reached its lowest point in more than 30 years. Since its peak in 1990, the teen pregnancy rate
dropped by more than half. Per 1,000 pregnancies, the teen pregnancy rate for girls aged 15-19
years old decreased from 116.9 to 57.4, representing a decline of 51%; 15% of that decrease
occurred in 2008. This decline was among all racial and ethnic groups (The National Campaign,
2016).
In 2010, the teen pregnancy rate in the United States reached its lowest point in more than 30 years.
Since its peak in 1990, the teen pregnancy rate dropped by more than half. Per 1,000 pregnancies,
the teen pregnancy rate for girls aged 15-19 years old decreased from 116.9 to 57.4, representing
a decline of 51%; 15% of that decrease occurred in 2008. This decline was among all racial and
ethnic groups (The National Campaign, 2016).
In 2010, approximately 625,000 women under the age of 20 became pregnant. Of those, 614,000
were adolescent women aged 15-19 and 11,000 represented those 14 years of age or younger. Out
of 1,000 women pregnant in 2010, 57.4% were teenagers; Nearly 6% of teens became pregnant in
2010 (Guttmacher Institute, 2014).
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Adolescent women 18-19 years-old accounted for 69% of all teen pregnancies in 2010 even
though they represented 41% of women aged 15-19. The pregnancy rate for 18-19 year-olds was
96.2, almost three times the rate for 15-17 year-olds at 30.1 (Guttmacher Institute, 2014).
By Race/ Ethnicity
Rates have declined for pregnant adolescents across racial and ethnic groups. However, disparities
still exist, and rates for some groups are still higher than others; black and Hispanic pregnancy
rates remain twice as high as those of non-Hispanic white adolescents. Non-Hispanic white
adolescents account for the lowest pregnancy rates. The decline in pregnancies among those white
teenagers fell 56% between 1990 and 2010 (from 86.6 per 1,000 to 37.8). Between 1990 and 2010
the decline among black adolescents aged 15-19 years-old fell 56% (from 223.8 per 1,000 to 99.5)
and among Hispanic teenagers (of any race), the pregnancy rate fell 51% between its peak in 1992
and 2010 (from 169.7 per 1,000 to 83.5) (Guttmacher Institute, 2014).
In 2013 there was a decline in pregnancy rates for teenagers aged 15-19 among all race and
ethnicity groups. In 2012, rates decline by 9% for non-Hispanic white, 10% for Hispanic and API
(Asian Pacific Islander), and 11% for non-Hispanic black and AIAN (American Indian Alaskan
Native) teenagers. Birth rates for teenagers aged 15–17 and 18–19 also declined for all racial and
ethnic groups in 2013 (National Vital Statistical Reports, 2015).
Teenage Births
In 1991 the peak rate for teenage births was 61.8 per 1,000 women. The teenage birthrate in 2010
was 34.4 births representing a 44% decline. For teenagers aged 15–19 the birth rate reached
another historic low of 26.5 births per 1,000 teenagers. Statistics reported a decline in 2013 from
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2012 by 10%. A rate reduction was noted for teenagers in nearly all race and Hispanic origin
groups (Guttmacher Institute, 2014).
In 2012, the birth rate for adolescent women aged 15-19 years-old was 305,388. In 2013 that
number was 273,105, showing an 11% decline from 2012. Compared to birth rates in 1991
(519,577), rates in 2013 were 47% lower.
Birth rates were down for teenagers aged 15-17 and 18-19 in 2013. Per 1,000 births, a decrease by
13% (12.3 births) for 15-17 year-olds and 8% (47.1) for 18-19 year-old from 2012. Since 1991,
the rates for these teenagers aged 15-17 fell 68% and 50% for those aged 18-19.
The birth rate for teenagers aged 10–14 declined to 0.3 births per 1,000 women in 2013, a record
low, from 0.4 in 2012 (National Vital Statistical Reports, 2015).
Statistically, teen birth rates have reached all-time lows and have continually declined. This
regression has taken place in all 50 states and across all racial and ethnic groups. The decrease in
teen births varied across states; between 1992 and 2010, state decreases ranged from 25% in West
Virginia to 62% in California.
In the article, “What is Behind the Declines in Teen Pregnancy Rates? Heather D. Boonstra
acknowledged two ways to account for the decline in teenage pregnancy. Teens are either having
less sex, becoming more effective contraceptive users or a combination of both. The evidence
suggests that the utilization of contraceptive measures more frequently and becoming better users
have been the driving factor of the long-term decline in teen pregnancy. Boonstra attested, “At the
end of the day, the credit for the decline of teen pregnancy rates goes to adolescents themselves,
who are making an effort to prevent unintended pregnancy” (Boonstra, 2014).
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Evidence indirectly links the social, cultural, and economic factors that affect teens’ sexual
behaviors and contraceptive use patterns. Although difficult to prove causation, researchers
acknowledge that economic inequality, social marginalization, and other structural factors affect
teens’ sexual behavior and contraceptive use patterns. How these behaviors link with race or
ethnicity, educational achievements, or family income stymies researchers (Boonstra, 2014).
Stigmas and Stereotypes
Merriam Webster’s Dictionary defines stigma as a mark of shame or discredit. To label a group or
individual as different constitutes a stigma. Groups of power place labels on groups with perceived
differences. When this occurs, a group often experiences mistreatment, marginalization, or social
exclusion (Link & Phelan, 2001).
Due to their age, class, and racial/ethnic backgrounds, adolescent mothers are especially vulnerable
to stigmatization. They are often portrayed as irresponsible and inept parents whose lives are
forever derailed by parenting in media stories, professional discourse, and advocacy organizations
(Lewis, Scarborough, Rose, & Quirin, 2007). While social inequalities precede teen pregnancies,
scientific practices and policies contribute to their stigmatization by downplaying its existence
(Sisson, 2012; SmithBattle, 2012).
While living in New York City, I remember the public service announcement (PSA) campaigns
spread throughout the city to combat teenage pregnancy. These PSAs featured alarming statistics
and the reality of being a young parent. They highlighted the effect an adolescent pregnancy could
have on a child. Two ads placed in subways, buses, and on social media are ingrained in my brain,
one pictured a fair-skinned male toddler crying, with light-colored eyes and golden locks with the
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caption, “I’m twice as likely not to graduate high school because you had me as a teen.” The other
featured a female brown-skinned toddler in deep thought with her finger next to her mouth. The
caption associated with the photo stated, “Honestly Mom…chances are he won’t stay with you.
What happens to me?” While bothersome in some aspects, I never paid much attention to the ads
or the startling statistics, at least not until my daughter became pregnant. Her pregnancy gave them
new meaning because she was in the count. While we could not control a paternal presence, we
could do our best as a family to ensure my daughter continued her education and planned to instill
those values in her unborn child.
While the stigmatization of teen mothers began more than a half-century ago, there was a time
when teen mothering was viewed as a powerful expression of a young woman’s independence.
Black teens who were excluded from maternity homes were having sex outside of marriage and
bearing children which led to the rise in single parenting. This led to the emergence of race as a
salient factor in the framing of teen mothering. As such, teen mothering was viewed individually
and within the familial context as deviant (SmithBattle, 2013). The delinking of sex from marriage
and parenting by teen mothers led to sweeping social changes (Furstenberg, 2007).
The age of the prospective parent is an important influence on norms about non-marital pregnancy.
Unmarried teenagers who bear children likely violate two transition norms, an age norm against
teenage pregnancy and a timing norm against pregnancy before marriage, whereas unmarried
adults solely violate the timing norm. The violation of the age norm in teenage pregnancy is
expected to be the stronger of the two because of public perceptions (which research has called
into question; see Hoffman, 1998, for a review) that having a child ruins an adolescent's life
chances.
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The social tolerance of underprivileged groups has been measured by society’s response to
unmarried adolescent pregnancies (Whitehead, 2001). While teen mothering is more visible than
in the past, pregnant teens and adolescent parents are still stigmatized. (Wiemann, Rickert,
Berenson, & Volk, 2005). Some believe that teen pregnancy should be stigmatized to discourage
future teen pregnancies. However, this idea may have unintended consequences by placing
negative attention upon adolescent mothers (Lewis, Scarborough, Rose, & Quirin, 2007). Research
(e.g., C.T. Miller & Kaiser, 2001) shows that stigma can have a negative influence on target
groups, adding to the challenges of those who are already disadvantaged. Teen mothers, viewed
as a disadvantaged group, may be harmed by the stigmatization of adolescent parenthood.
Link and Phelan (2001) suggested that stigma occurs when differences are labeled and
distinguished; labeled people are linked to stereotypes and distinguished as “other” or “them”; they
experience status loss and discrimination. When these components are mobilized by individuals,
communities, or governments with greater power, they result in reduced opportunities, rejection,
and discrimination for the stigmatized group.
An undesirable characteristic is deemed as a stigma by the perceiver (Goffman, 1963). When
individuals are devalued or considered as deviants, this negative evaluation characterizes stigma.
(Goffman, 1963). Stigmatization of a person involves making assumptions. These assumptions
and/or judgments, which may be incorrect, are often called stereotypes, Stereotypes allow people
to take cognitive shortcuts by making assumptions about an individual without knowing him or
her.
What are the common stereotypes of teen mothers? Research suggests that many associate teen
mothers with welfare dependency, irresponsibility, stupidity, ignorance, laziness, child abuse,
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immorality, and promiscuity (Herman, 2008; Whitehead, 2001). In a study of 925 teens who had
recently given birth, 40% reported feeling stigmatized by their pregnancy (Weimann et, al., 2005).
Stigmatization can lead to feelings of isolation and low self-esteem in teen mothers. The teen
mothers in the study who felt stigmatized were more likely to have those experiences.
According to Link and Phelan (2001), it is ineffective when individuals attempt to resist stigma.
When an adolescent mother displays behavior that opposes stigma this can be misinterpreted. For
example, when a clinician misinterprets a teen mother’s behavior, stereotypes may be reinforced
as signs of immaturity or apathy, rather than a response to being disqualified and disrespected
(Fessler, 2008).
In the article, Reducing the Stigmatization of Teen Mothers, Lee SmithBattle examined the stigmas
teen mothers faced over the last half-century by tracing the misrepresentation and stereotyping
associated with teen parenting. Stigmatization teen parents face may occur by those in service
positions geared toward helping people. As such, teens may feel less inclined to seek necessary
services which can harm them and contribute to social isolation (SmithBattle, 2009).
Failure to treat patients with respect and dignity violates the nursing ethic and such stigmatizing
practices geared towards teen mothers’ should be a concern to nurses. These practices may impede
their ability to offer effective clinical care which may contribute to the many challenges teen
mothers experience (SmithBattle, 2013).
Unfortunately, adverse perceptions of an individual can lead to negative interactions and affect the
way they are treated. If stigmas and stereotypes of teen mothers are present, individuals may
behave negatively around them. Over time, stigmas can be internalized (Goffman, 1963), and teen
mothers may begin to believe that they are not competent parents. These self-perceptions may
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negatively impact their parental abilities. While some studies suggest that some teen mothers do
engage in risky parenting behavior (e.g., Tamis-Lemonda, Shannon, & Spellman, 2002) and
stereotypes may play a part, the number of confounding variables makes it difficult to imply
causality.
Teen mothers and their children face unique challenges and are at high risk for negative outcomes
(Wakschlag & Hans, 2000). However, teen pregnancy catalyzes positive changes for some young
women (Klaw, 2011). My daughter represented a perfect example of this. Before her pregnancy,
she always appeared angry. She lacked focus in school and was defiant towards authority figures.
Her pregnancy brought out a softer side of her. Caring for her unborn child seemed to give her
purpose, and when she arrived, she focused on finishing school and attending college. My
granddaughter appeared to give my daughter a new lease on life.
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CHAPTER 4: THE SANDWICH AND CLUB SANDWICH GENERATIONS
Although there has been a decline in teenage pregnancy and parenthood there are still many
families who are either, currently in the midst of this transition or about to embark into the
territory of early grandparenthood, as a result of the choices of their son or daughter. This
position may place them into a generation known as the “sandwich generation” much earlier
than they anticipated. Depending on their present and future caregiving responsibilities the
additional family member may propel them into a “sandwich generation” or a “club sandwich
generation” caregiver. The distinction between the two categories depends on the multiple
levels of generations simultaneously being cared for.
Sandwich Generation
Adult children of the elderly, who are “sandwiched” between their aging parents and their
own maturing children are known as the “sandwich generation.” This term was coined by
Dorothy Miller in 1981 and refers to that segment of the population between 45 and 65 years
of age who have aging parents that require help and who at the same time have at least one
adult child who has returned to live at home (Miller, 1981). Since that time, that definition
has been extended to include younger children who have not yet left home. Usually, the term
is used for those who are caring for aging parents and caring for their children, but it can
also apply to those caring for parents and grandchildren, especially if the grandparents are
raising grandchildren (Adcox, 2016).
Teenage pregnancy and parenthood can place their parent(s) in the sandwich generation
much earlier than expected and oftentimes before the age range of 45 and 65 years of age. In
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my particular case, I was 37 years old, raising two children as a single parent when my
daughter announced her pregnancy. To say I was unprepared with the notion of becoming a
grandparent was an understatement. The onset of early grandparenthood propelled me into
the sandwiched generation eight years sooner than the lowest age Dorothy Miller referenced.
Club Sandwich Generation
Carol Abaya, a writer, and lecturer on the sandwiched generation may be attributed to coining
the term “club sandwich” generation, which refers to a generation that is helping to care for
three generations. The term is a spin-off of the term sandwich generation, meaning pressed
between the demands of caring for children and aging parents. Typically, members of this
multi-level caregiving generation are caring for elderly parents, providing some support for
adult children, and helping to care for grandchildren. It can also include those in their 30’s
and 40’s raising young children while caring for aging parents and grandparents. The
nutcracker generation is another term used to describe this phenomenon and the intense
pressures those in this particular situation endure (Adcox, 2014).
When a teenager decides to become a parent in a household where his/her parent(s) are
raising younger children, this propels their parent into the sandwich generation. However,
for those parents that are caring for aging parents or grandparents, the number of layers
increases pushing them into the club sandwich generation.
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CHAPTER 5: IMPACT OF EARLY GRANDPARENTHOOD ON PARENTS FACING
MULTIPLE CAREGIVING RESPONSIBILITIES
Teenage pregnancy has a major impact on the lives of the parents of teen parents. An unwed
teenage pregnancy generally causes roles to shift within the family due to its unplanned nature. As
a result, several emotional responses, as well as tasks, emerge in anticipation and planning for a
(grand) child (Cervera & Cassano, 1989).
According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, parenthood is defined as the state of being a parent;
specifically the position, function, or standing of a parent. In addition to being responsible for the
overall well-being, education, and care of a child while the child is a minor, or under the age of
18, parents are also responsible for providing safety, clothing, food, and shelter (Staff Writer,
2020). A parent is essential in instilling social and moral values in the child in their care.
A parent is granted the title of a grandparent when their child becomes a parent. For most
grandparents, this is viewed as a joyous occasion, however, for the parent(s) of teenage parents,
this is unlikely a cause for celebration…at least initially.
When teenagers become parents a hefty amount of the responsibility falls onto their parents which
can ultimately create an undue burden and unexpected hardship for those parents. This is primarily
a result of the teen’s inability to fully care for themselves as minor children. As such, those
grandparents become tasked with assisting their teen parent in providing safety, clothing, food,
and shelter for their grandchild as well as emotional, physical, and financial support for their teen.
The additional responsibility can have an impact on the grandparent’s physical, social, and
emotional health and well-being.
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When my daughter became pregnant, her news was presented to me a few months after my mother
lost her battle to gastric cancer and less than three months following the unexpected passing of my
father. While coping with their deaths, handling the responsibilities associated with being the
executor of my father’s estate, which required me to travel back and forth to Washington, DC from
Yonkers, NY, being a single mother of two and the unexpected announcement of a grandchild on
the way, the added layer of stress pushed me out of the sandwiched generation and into the club
sandwich generation, even though my parents were no longer physically around.
Those persons in the sandwich and club sandwich generations find themselves faced with
compounding demands in caring for multiple layers. The amount of time, energy, and effort
required to juggle and/or balance these demands can become overwhelming. Balancing the needs
of younger children with those of adult children, aging parents or grandparents can leave those
stuck-in-the-middle feeling overworked, stressed, tired, and oftentimes financially strapped from
the added burden (Halbert, 2012). Single-handedly managing the affairs of my deceased parents,
especially those of my father who had property and assets to settle in probate court took a few
years to navigate. Traveling back and forth complicated matters further.
In summary, persons situated in the sandwich and club sandwich generations are impacted in
several ways, social, economic, mental, and physical, due to the multiple and multi-layered
caregiving responsibilities.
Social Impact
Teenage pregnancy and parenthood may socially impact the lives of their parents when faced with
early grandparenthood. The relationship between mother-daughter or mother-son shifts as a result
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of early pregnancy and parenthood. Dallas (2004), interviewed 20 African American grandmothers
(eleven maternal and nine paternal) who reported having a grandchild whose father was less than
20 years of age at the time of the child’s birth. They noted that adolescent parents who reside with
their parents occupy two roles simultaneously, that of new parents as well as dependent children
(Dallas 1995; Marsiglio, 1987; Lerman, 1993). Dependent children under the care and instruction
of their parents now find themselves thrust into adult responsibilities and their parents now find
themselves parenting a teenager who is now charged with caring for another life while still a child
themselves. Navigating this process can prove difficult and can cause stress and tension in both
healthy and fractured relationships.
Dallas (2014) reported that almost all of the grandmothers experienced distance in their
relationships with their adolescents and attribute it to parental responsibilities. One grandmother
felt her daughter changed and stated, “She changed. I’m telling you, it’s like night and day!”
Another described her son’s maturity and the impact of father as the cause of the distance in their
relationship. The adolescent parents’ new maturity was sometimes perceived as creating new
distance within the quality of their relationship with the grandmother (Dallas, 2014).
Still another described how her new status as a grandmother caused her to treat her adolescent
daughter differently and thus affected their mother-daughter relationship.”
Pregnant teens, teen parents, and early grandparents may find themselves face to face with the
harsh realities of the stigmas and stereotypes that surround teenage pregnancy and parenthood.
Questions of moral character and parenting may surface and persons in this situation may
experience social isolation from peers, family members, and their religious organizations for the
violations of both the age and time norming that teenage pregnancy and parenthood entails.
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When my daughter informed me of her pregnancy and made the decision to continue with it, there
were two expectations required of her and they were non-negotiable. She was to continue with her
studies and graduate high school and remain actively involved in her church activities. Education
and spirituality are extremely important to me and no matter the social hardship these two would
be paramount.
My mind recalled an incident during my daughter’s junior year when the weight of her decision
was confronted by the insensitivity she experienced from one of her peers. This particular event
was too much for her to bear and her emotions got the best of her and she reacted inappropriately.
She was taking her junior pictures in the auditorium and a student began laughing and jeering at
her during her session. Her pregnant belly was noticeable and the comments and stares enraged
her. She flew off the stage and confronted the girl and an unlikely incident occurred. As a parent,
you want nothing more than to be able to protect your child from any unnecessary pain and
adversity. Yet, it was in that moment that I genuinely realized I could not protect her from the
negative glances, stares, or insensitive comments that she would experience and not simply from
her peers but from adults as well that would pass judgment on her based on her decision to become
a teenage mother and it broke my heart.
I also remember sitting down with our pastor at the time who shared with me that a few members
were concerned about the active role my daughter played in some of the ministries at church. Some
people felt that she should step down while pregnant for fear of giving off the wrong impression
to the other youngsters in our congregation. He addressed their concerns but was unwavering in
his belief that removing her from her activities would not be the best course of action or show her
the love that God has for her and all of us when we make a mistake. My daughter’s sin was
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fornication, having sexual relations with someone outside of the sanctity of marriage, but the baby
growing inside of her was a gift from God and we walked together in that truth. As a result of the
courageous choice our pastor made, when my granddaughter was born and later christened my
daughter gave her life to God and was baptized. Had things gone another way, I wonder if my
daughter would have strayed away from the church and possibly from God altogether. I am
eternally grateful that this question will never be answered!
Economic Impact
In the article, “How to Avoid Sandwich Generation Problems: Don’t Let Sandwich Generation
Issues Derail Your Retirement Plans” by Sharon O’Brien, she denoted five ways to avoid sandwich
generation problems: 1) preserve your assets 2) plan ahead 3) assess the situation before sandwich
generation problems arise 4) get insurance and lastly, 5) put yourself first.
O’Brien’s article focused on those in the sandwich generation that are caring for adult children and
aging parents. For those in their sixties, a few examples she provided to help alleviate the financial
strain are working longer, cutting away expenses, and encouraging college-aged children to seek
financial aid through merit grants and scholarships, both of which do not require repayment after
graduation. For those that are in their forties and fifties, she acknowledged they may have a little
more time to prepare before they are caught in the sandwich generation and her suggestions are
more geared towards them (O’Brien, 2016).
In preserving one’s assets, college-aged children can apply for student loans and aging parents
may have assets and resources that can be used to assist with their financial expenses and care.
Planning and preparation will help in anticipating the future needs that caring for loved ones will
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entail. By talking to parents early on before care is needed one can find out how they would like
to be cared for as they age, what kind of life-saving measures, and also who they would like to
make legal and medical decisions for them if they are no longer able to conduct them on their own.
While the initial conversations may be uncomfortable and prove difficult in the long run it will be
very beneficial. Long-term care insurance may prove to be a viable option depending on the cost
of coverage and length of time coverage is needed. If it is feasible then it can help off-set asset-
draining costs (O’Brien, 2016).
However, for those that find themselves in the sandwich and club sandwich generations earlier
than expected due to teenage pregnancy and parenthood avoiding sandwich generation problems
may not be an option at all, which can lead to financial stress and strain. The additional cost
associated with providing for the arrival of another family member in situations where resources
may already feel economically stretched can seem daunting. While there are resources through
government agencies that are available for families in need some families may not choose to go
this route due to the stigmas and stereotypes that are associated with seeking the assistance of
social services, pride, or fear. However, programs such as Woman, Infants, and Children (WIC),
Temporary Aid for Needy Families (TANF), Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program
(SNAP), and Medicaid for health insurance options can help alleviate some of the financial
burdens by offering low to no-cost health care, cash and/or food subsidies and child care assistance,
if a family qualifies. Other considerations are part-time employment opportunities for teen parents
which can help with childcare, clothing and other essential items.
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While one cannot control being thrust into the sandwich and club sandwich generations, any
amount of planning and preparation that can be done may prove advantageous in stifling stressors
imposed by the economic impact.
Physical and Mental Health Impact
According to The World Health Organization (WHO), health is defined as a state of complete
physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Teenage
pregnancy and parenthood impact the lives of their parent(s) on physical and mental health levels.
Some of those aspects include stress, disappointment, depression, hopelessness, fear, anxiety, loss,
or redirection of goals for both the grandparent and teen parent.
During my daughter’s pregnancy, feelings of disappointment resonated. Thoughts about the
untimely nature of her pregnancy rang loudly but the most disturbing thought that crossed my
mind, albeit briefly was, “Is there something I could have done differently to prevent this from
happening?” A roller coaster of emotions welled inside of me as I pondered this question.
My daughter and I used to watch the MTV television show 16 and Pregnant, in an effort of
showing her the realities of various adolescent experiences of teenage pregnancy and parenthood,
but never did I imagine this would be our story. There was a certain level of stress that heavily
weighed upon me during certain instances throughout her pregnancy. Mentally, the idea of being
a grandmother at 37 caused a certain amount of anxiety within me. The goals and dreams I
envisioned for myself and my daughter appeared to be slipping away.
Sandwich generation caregiving can cause friction within the family. Conflicts can arise or become
exacerbated while providing multi-generational care in a family. This can lead to stress and strain
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on a relationship between partners when a considerable amount of time is spent caring for an aging
parent, grandparent, or in my case, a grandchild. With only a certain amount of hours in a day, the
distribution of time in multiple areas for various people with varying needs leaves room for
someone to feel left out or experiencing lack. Oftentimes, it is the caregivers’ needs that go
unnoticed, unfortunately, to their detriment.
Once my granddaughter was born and my daughter returned to her junior year of high school the
primary caregiving responsibilities shifted to my granddaughter’s father and me during the school
day. On more than one occasion I found myself experiencing symptoms of postpartum depression
even though I had not given birth. Being plunged back into caring for a newborn became
overwhelming while in graduate school and mothering my elementary school-aged son and my
teen-parent daughter. The sheer lack of sleep led to physical exhaustion which impacted my mood
and conduct.
There was barely time to eat, rest, spend time with family and friends or concentrate on my studies.
Oftentimes, I found myself on the losing side of the balancing act, which is a challenge for those
in the sandwich generation. The inability to meet the caregiving needs of everyone can leave the
grandparent feeling overwhelmed and full of guilt, a common reaction for persons responsible for
multiple generations. In the book, The Sandwich Generation’s Guide to Eldercare: Concrete
Advice to Simultaneously Care for Your Kids and Your Parents by Rumrill, Wickert, and Schultz
(2013, as cited in Shallcross, 2015), Rumrill affirmed, “The caregiver feels that he or she is letting
everyone down when, in fact, he or she is keeping everyone moving along.” When guilt crept in,
I reminded myself that I was doing the best that I could, and if that meant going to bed with dirty
dishes in the sink or going an extra week without doing the laundry, that is what I did.
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CHAPTER 6: FAMILY MATTERS: CONDITIONS THAT MAY INFLUENCE THE
TRANSITION INTO TEEN PREGNANCY AND EARLY GRANDPARENTHOOD
In the article, “Family Matters: How Mothers of Adolescent Parents Experience Adolescent
Pregnancy and Parenting”, the author Constance Dallas, examined the essential role of familial
support in the long-term success of paternal involvement of unmarried, low income, African
American adolescent fathers. The experiences of nine paternal and eleven maternal grandmothers
were assessed through interviews during this transition to fatherhood (Dallas, 2004).
Findings were presented according to the six factors of transition conditions (meanings,
expectations, level of knowledge and skill, the environment, level of planning, and emotional and
physical well-being) from the nursing model of transitions (Schumacher & Meleis,1994). Findings
indicated that transitioning to parenthood for adolescents fathers and grandparenthood for both
paternal and maternal grandmothers was often sudden and complex. Paternal and maternal
grandmothers continued to act as primary parents for their adolescents while compensating for the
lack of skills and attributes for the adolescent’s children (Dallas, 2004). The six factors of transition
conditions listed above in Schumacher’s study were subsequently applied to my experience as a
grandparent facing early grandparenthood.
Parenthood is a journey that many choose to embark on. Becoming a parent, irrespective of age
has been identified as an important developmental transition (Schumacher & Meleis, 1994). The
abrupt and complicated transition for families on both the paternal or maternal side of teenage
pregnancy and parenthood causes changes on individual and family levels. These changes occur
in identities, roles, relationships, abilities, and patterns of behavior. Conditions which
will influence the standard of the transition experience and therefore the consequences of
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transitions are meanings, expectations, level of data and skill, environment, level of designing, and
emotional and physical well-being (Schumacher & Meleis, 1994).
The Meaning of the Event in the Life Course of the Grandparent
Meaning is defined as the subjective appraisal of the transitional event and judgment regarding its
possible effect (Schumacher & Meleis, 1994). Expectations surrounding the appropriate time for
children to enter parenthood, and the sequence of events that should normally occur beforehand,
vary from family to family (Burton & Stack, 1993).
When a parent expects to enter grandparenthood at an early age, the news of their adolescents’
pregnancy affects them differently than parents expecting to become grandparents later in life.
Burton (1990), in a three-year exploratory qualitative study of teenage childbearing in 20 low-
income multigeneration black families, reported that maternal grandmothers who expected to
become grandmothers at an early age responded more positively to their adolescents’ pregnancy
than those grandmothers who expected to be older. In this study, grandmothers had little time or
opportunity to respond to their social status change from mother to grandmother and one
grandmother, in particular, expressed her frustration with her family’s demands that she
immediately adapts to their perceptions of how a grandmother should behave.
The news of my daughter’s pregnancy and the idea of becoming a grandparent earlier than
expected caused a series of emotions to flow through me. While I expected this news to arrive
several years later, after my daughter finished college, traveled, and became married, the thought
of welcoming a new addition to our family following the deaths of my parents added a positive
component to my reaction, even though I knew there would be many challenges ahead.
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Level of Planning
Unscheduled and unexpected events occur along the journey of life. Some of those occurrences
can include teenage pregnancy, job loss, death of a loved one, an unforeseen health diagnosis, or
an untimely divorce. Such abrupt and inadvertent experiences leave little to no room for
preparation and planning in advance. When this happens, action plans are then created in response
to decisions over which persons have little to no control.
The onset of teenage pregnancy and parenthood requires a level of planning for adolescent parents
and their families. The decision to continue or terminate a pregnancy or surrender a baby requires
family members to think through and communicate with one another. Discussions about financial
obligations, responsibilities of the adolescent father, paternal family, and postpartum care require
forethought. A team effort from future grandparents, siblings, and the baby’s father can help the
teen mother plan for herself and the baby (Abel, Jackson, Al-Saagrarf, and Shuster, 1982).
If pregnancy is unplanned and unanticipated, it provides little to no opportunity for parents and
grandparents to adjust to the changes in parental responsibilities, or the changes in their
relationships with the family of the other adolescent parent. The expected paternal and maternal
grandparents of the unborn child which, oftentimes have not met before discovering the pregnancy
are now forced to negotiate sharing family resources to provide for the adolescents’ baby with
virtual strangers (Schumacher & Meleis, 1994).
Even with the best-laid plans, circumstances can arise and plans may require adjustments or the
creation of a new plan. For parents of pregnant teens, dreams and goals that may have circled in
the parents’ mind the moment their child was born may be thwarted e.g. completing high school,
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college and even marriage before their teen became a parent, nevertheless, obtaining a high school
diploma, attending and graduating from college and marriage are very attainable goals even if the
sequence is displaced. Although the old order of events may no longer exist, a new order can be
purposeful and promising with a shift in perspective.
If a pregnant teen desires to finish high school, attend college, and/or has career aspirations, each
will require planning to accomplish. The grandparent to be should devise a plan to assist their teen
parent without taking on the full responsibility of parenting. If the grandparent has other children,
is a caregiver to aging parents or grandparents the level of planning is of the utmost importance to
figure out the best way to assist while managing a full plate. It is important of course for this
planning to be carried out collaboratively with the daughter if it is going to be realistic and
successful. Planning will help the pregnant teen and grandparent to anticipate potential problems
before they arise.
Perez-Brena, Updegraff, Umaña-Taylor, Jahromi & Guimond (2014), in their research study on
the multi-faceted nature of teen pregnancy on mother-daughter co-parenting relationships
examined the links between relationship quality and adjustment through three dimensions of co-
parenting (communication, involvement, and conflict). The study consisted of 167 Mexican-origin
teen mothers and their mothers and explored their relationship 10 months post-childbirth. The
dynamics of their relationship is extremely important since mothers of adolescent parents often
serve as co-parents (Pittman & Coley, 2011), and primary resources for pregnant and parenting
teens (Kretchmar & Jacobvitz, 2002). A healthy mother-daughter relationship can help with the
transition and adjustment each will experience, especially during the early years of parenting.
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Environment
Dictionary.com defined supportive as providing sympathy or encouragement; providing additional
help, or information. William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR, Medical Author of
MedicineNet.com ascribed the medical definition of an environment as, “the sum of the total of
the elements, factors, and conditions in the surroundings which may have an impact on the
development, action or survival of an organism or group of organisms”. The environment in which
pregnant teens, teen parents, and expected grandparents find themselves during the transition into
teen pregnancy and parenthood plays an important role for the unborn child. For pregnant teens
and teen parents, the environment can be one that fosters support or its opposite. The environment
within which the transition takes place may be supportive or unsupportive for the individuals
undergoing transition (Schumacher & Meleis, 1994).
Dallas (1995) in her research study on adolescent fatherhood conducted eight focus group
interviews with five of each, adolescent fathers, nonfather peers, paternal grandmothers,
adolescent mothers, and maternal grandmothers. Information, thoughts, and feelings were elicited
from the 25 participants on their concept of adolescent fatherhood. Her findings indicated multiple
challenges for paternal involvement of adolescent fathers. Barriers that prevent them from
assuming the responsibilities of fatherhood include developmental immaturity, lack of education,
financial dependence, and painful conflicted relationships with their own fathers. (Dallas, 1995).
Sims and Rofil (2013) examined the experiences of maternal and paternal grandparents with little
or no contact with their grandchildren through the matrilineal advantage theory to see if the theory
could be used effectively in practice to identify grandparents at risk for estrangement. Their study
highlighted that paternal grandparents were more likely to experience estrangement from their
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grandchildren as a result of divorce when the father was no longer a resident in the home or through
re-partnering, even when the grandparents were actively involved in their grandchildren’s lives.
Research on the matrilineal advantage theory suggests that maternal grandparents will have a
closer relationship with their grandchildren because mothers seem to have closer ties to their
maternal line (Chan & Elder, Jr., 2000).
As a maternal grandmother, it was very important for me to establish a relationship with my
granddaughter’s paternal family. I wanted my future grandchild to have a relationship with both
sides of her family and I was determined to do my best to foster this kind of environment. My
daughter was in love, they were expecting a child, and the situation itself was complex. I remember
wondering about their ability to co-parent even if they decided to part ways because they were
both so young. There is remarkably little discussion in the research literature on teenage pregnancy
about the different experiences and the relationships between maternal and parental grandparents.
Evidence shows that some maternal grandmothers deny fathers access to their children if they are
unable to contribute financially; inadequate financial contributions from the paternal family can
be a primary source of contention. Another source is the relationship between the adolescent
parents (Dallas, 2004). Meeting with the paternal family shortly after my daughter shared her news
helped with the transition. We wanted our adolescents to know we would do our best to work
together and support them through this life event.
When issues arose between my daughter and her boyfriend, which happened quite frequently
during the pregnancy and afterward, I needed to allow them to work through things, and then if
they were unable to attain a resolution I reached out to the paternal grandmother to assist in
mediation. At times this was very successful and during others, the matter escalated before
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reaching an agreement on particular matters. The main challenges centered around childcare and
financial responsibilities. Over time, we were able to develop a rhythm of ebbs and flows that
worked pretty well.
Establishing a relationship with the paternal family helped to ease their fears about my willingness
to allow access to “our” granddaughter. At two weeks old, my granddaughter began spending
overnight visits with her father and his family. Some of my family members and friends thought
the idea was absurd but I understood the importance of bonding and while mothers can establish
this relationship and connection during pregnancy as she feels the baby growing inside of her
womb, the experience is somewhat different for fathers and I wanted my granddaughter to have
the greatest outcome possible with having the support and love of both parents and their respective
families. Children may vaguely remember the money you spend on them but they will remember
your presence.
Even when a grandparent attempts to create optimal circumstances conflicts may potentially
emerge. One of the biggest challenges we faced was my daughter’s decision to continue her
education when my granddaughter’s father declined. When she graduated high school and was
about to go away for college (she was accepted to one and considered attending) the idea of the
paternal family becoming the custodial caregivers with me as the secondary one was met with
disdain to the degree that my daughter had to withdraw her acceptance out of state and begin her
studies in a community college closer to home.
My decision to support my daughter’s desire to pursue her education away from home in college
by assisting in the rearing of my granddaughter was not one in which I planned to fully embrace
the role of parent. As such, my daughter was compelled to face the impact of her decision and
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make the sacrifice of putting the needs of her daughter over her own, one that any good parent
would make. Pregnant teens and teen parents should be allowed to feel the sacrifice of their
decision.
Abel, Jackson, Al-Saagrarf, and Shuster (1982) in their research study of 16 white families with
unwed teenage daughters, have pointed out that a daughter's pregnancy affects the entire family; a
baby brought home to live or living nearby can disturb the family hierarchy, re-align coalitions,
and produce new roles within the family. My daughter’s pregnancy affected our entire family.
New roles were identified, which had the potential to disturb the family hierarchy. Now that my
daughter was having a baby, I wondered if she would assume a parental role over her younger
sibling or think of herself as my equal. Would her pregnancy create a power struggle between us
and turn our home into a war zone instead of a peaceful and loving environment?
Part of the environmental transition includes a role shift. Parents tend to view their children as
their babies, however, when an adolescent becomes a parent they should begin to view them
through a broader lens. It is imperative to become a consultant and allow the teen parent to be the
parent. This will include watching them make mistakes, especially during the early stages when
they are still learning and growing through the experience. Expected grandparents should keep in
mind that parenting at any age is a learning and growth opportunity. Parents of pregnant teens and
teen parents can show their support and encouragement along the way which will help bolster their
confidence.
This role shift has spatial environmental implications that may or may not be possible to achieve
depending on the space available in the home. Ideally, the teen and her child would have a distinct
section of the home as a way of helping the teenager begin to see that she is creating her family
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unit, while still feeling the strong support of her parent(s). Space was a major concern for me when
my daughter became pregnant. Where would we put another person in an already cramped
apartment? We lived in a two-bedroom cooperative with a breakfast nook. When I purchased the
coop, my daughter was seven years old and it was perfect for her and me and when I became
pregnant two years later I had to make changes to accommodate him. As he outgrew sharing a
space with me and needed a room of his own the living room became my bedroom and the
breakfast nook became our intimate family space.
My daughter’s pregnancy required us to look for ways to create space, yet again. In turn, my
daughter’s room was transitioned into a space to accommodate her and her unborn child, and the
intimate family room was converted into a nursery. While it was an extremely tight squeeze and
we lost our family space in the process, I was thankful to have a separate nursery. This proved
beneficial and allowed me to care for my granddaughter during the daytime while my daughter
was in school without imposing on her family space. For those families that are unable to create
this kind of environment, the potential for added stress within the family is a concern.
Expectations
Teenage pregnancy, parenthood, and early grandparenthood is a complex transition many people
face. Expectations for a transition that is both clear and realistic can enhance the quality of the
transition process (Schumacher & Meleis, 1994). Expectant grandparents are faced with unrealized
expectations of a future fashioned in their minds for their children about items to be accomplished
before parenthood, e.g. college, marriage, life experience, and are now confronted with new
expectations for their pregnant teen, teen parent, and the other adolescent parent’s family.
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Maternal grandmothers may have expectations of the adolescent father and paternal families’ role
in areas such as familial contact with maternal family, childcare, and financial responsibilities. In
a study by Dallas, “All of the paternal and maternal grandmothers reported at least minimal contact
between the adolescent father and the maternal family unit and identified loving his child and
providing financial contributions as primary fatherhood functions.” In areas related to direct child
care activities, the level of parenting expectations for adolescent mothers was elevated, as
described by the majority of maternal grandmothers, in comparison to their expectations for
adolescent fathers (Dallas, 2004). One maternal grandmother in the Dallas study shared,
I asked him if he was going to take care of his baby. And then I think he told me, he would
try to do the best that he could. So I talked to his mother too, because he’s so young. His
mother said that they were going to give us some money for his daughter but that they just
didn’t want a granddaughter and didn’t want to be involved.
In the African American community in particular substituting for fathers is so common that
maternal grandmothers feel justified in complaining about instances when those expectations go
unmet (Dallas, 2004). Maternal grandmothers experience disappointment when paternal
grandmothers do not step up to assist in the paternal father’s absence. One maternal grandmother
in Dallas’ study disclosed, “I would have thought that the adolescent father’s mother would have
called me and told me to bring the baby to her home even though the father of the baby was out of
town” (Dallas, 2004).
Those two experiences resonated with me. My daughter’s transition from pregnancy to parenthood
and therefore my transition into early grandparenthood evoked several expectations from those
directly involved in the transition and others on the outside. As a grandmother, certain people
expected me to act a certain way, some of those in my circle felt I should be doing more for my
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daughter and some thought I should be doing less. Some people had issues when I left my daughter
to figure certain things out on her own or my refusal to watch my granddaughter at times. There
was a sense of entitlement my daughter displayed at times when she felt I wasn’t doing enough as
a grandmother, which led to hurt feelings and uncomfortable moments at times. My expectations
of her, the expected father, and his family were unfulfilled at times and later on, I realized that
some of my expectations were never articulated. Certain assumptions in my mind of what the
paternal family would do when the father fell short of his responsibilities were not communicated
ahead of time. Planning together, or at least regular communication between us, would have
allowed us to collectively create realistic and clear expectations of the role everyone planned to
occupy. As a result, unfulfilled expectations led to frustration, bitterness, and resentment at times
towards my granddaughter’s paternal family.
Level of Knowledge and Skill
Level of knowledge and skill refers to the amount of information individuals have relevant to the
transition and their ability to skillfully respond to the challenges of the transition (Schumacher &
Meleis, 1994). In her research study on how mothers of adolescent parents experience adolescent
pregnancy and parenting, Dallas (2004) denoted,
The inadequate knowledge and skills of the adolescents causes increased demand on their
family who try to compensate. Similarly, grandmothers may also lack adequate knowledge
and skills not only to prepare their adolescents to assume parenting roles but also to assume
their new roles as grandparents.
Some grandmothers, who had adjusted their parenting to the needs and demands of older-
aged children, had difficulty learning to parent or to co-parent the infants of their adolescent
children while continuing to parent the adolescent parent.
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My son was eight years old when my eldest granddaughter was born. The transition from caring
for my older-aged children to providing care for my infant granddaughter was extremely difficult.
Going from the independence of my son and daughter who could feed and dress themselves to
preparing bottles, changing diapers, packing a diaper bag, and managing a car seat and stroller was
taxing and required an adjustment physically, mentally, and emotionally. What was once a simple
trip to the grocery store now required planning and preparation and once there the thought of my
granddaughter waking up from a nap and needing assistance created a certain amount of anxiety.
The constant juggling of care required for my infant granddaughter, elementary school-aged son,
and teenage daughter tested all of my faculties.
My parents passed away shortly before my granddaughter was born and without having them
physically around to offer advice and support oftentimes, I felt lost. No one in my immediate circle
shared my current circumstances, even though some of my dearest friends were teenage parents
themselves in our youth. While there was a supportive network in place, there were times when I
recall feeling isolated and in need of a place to turn to for answers to some of my questions or a
shared experience to travel this path.
The search for resources and guidance was an arduous process. The majority of information I
acquired focused on grandparents who are raising grandchildren (GRGs; also known as
Grandparents as Parents (GAPs (Adcox, 2014) but the particular nuances of parenting a pregnant
teen or teenage parent proved hard to locate.
Emotional and Physical Well-Being
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Transitions are often accompanied by emotional adjustments, stress, and physical discomfort.
Thus, emotional and physical well-being refers to an individual’s capacity to respond to the
emotional adjustments, stress, and physical discomfort which often accompany transitions
(Schumacher & Meleis, 1994).
As a sandwich generation caregiver entering into early grandparenthood, I wondered about the
emotional toll my daughter’s pregnancy and parenthood would take. Her news came as I was still
processing the loss of my parents. My resignation was given shortly after my parents’ deaths so I
was an unemployed, single mother of two, and one more thing felt like one too many. There were
moments when I felt ill-equipped and afraid the bow would break. The impending changes in the
dynamics of certain relationships were of the utmost concern, four relationships, in particular, the
relationship between my daughter and I, my son and I, my son and daughter, and my significant
other and I. Would we be able to pull together as a family and support each other through the
transition?
As a single mother, I did not have a lot of experience in dealing with the paternal families of my
children. My daughter’s father passed away when she was 10 years old from lung cancer and he
did not play a significant role in her life. My son’s father never chose to be an active participant in
his life. As a result of my personal experience and those of family members and friends that had
rocky relationships with their children’s paternal families, thoughts about my grandchild’s paternal
family and our ability to work together as a unit lingered in my mind.
It was refreshing to discover during my research that my initial concerns were shared with the
other grandmothers. The grandmothers in the study by Dallas identified two primary sources of
emotional adjustment and stress during their transition. The first was the change in the quality of
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their parent-child relationship with the adolescent parents, and the second was the quality of their
relationship with the family unit of the other adolescent parent (Dallas, 2004). Knowing there were
others in my situation that shared similar concerns brought comfort to me even though I did not
know the women personally. Simply the idea of our shared experience brought about a certain
connection and familiarity during a time when I needed it most.
As a sandwich generation caregiver, I needed to remind myself of the importance of self-care. I
scheduled time to make myself a priority. I could not be any good for anyone if I did not take care
of myself. It was essential to set realistic goals and expectations, get proper rest, schedule time to
exercise and relax. There was never enough time to accomplish everything, but it was vital for me
to maintain healthy relationships and friendships. I stayed actively involved in my hobbies and
interests. I forced myself to set boundaries to ensure I took care of myself. I could not be everything
to everyone and no one to myself. I reminded myself that I mattered. When establishing a balance
between the needs of everyone, it was imperative to include me. I enlisted the help of family,
friends, and my church. There were times I felt alone when that wasn’t the case because people
were willing to help if I asked. Simultaneously caring for myself and others felt like an
overwhelming burden alone, and I did not want the stress of it all to take its toll.
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CHAPTER 7: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The decline in the rate of teenage pregnancy and parenthood varies across racial and ethnic groups
and is due to teens having less sex and their effective use of contraception. Economic inequality,
social marginalization, and other structural factors affect teens’ sexual behavior and contraceptive
use patterns; however, researchers are unable to directly link causation to race, ethnicity,
educational achievements, or family income. Teens themselves are accountable for the decline in
teen pregnancy and parenthood. It is their efforts to prevent unintended pregnancies that ultimately
attribute to the decrease.
The stigmas and stereotypes surrounding teenage pregnancy can cause harm to pregnant teens and
adolescent parents by negatively impacting their parental abilities. If maltreatment is inflicted by
those in service positions responsible for helping people, e.g. nurses or clinicians, teens may not
seek the help they need for fear of being demeaned, shamed, condemned, or chastised for their
choice. Negative perceptions that lead to negative interactions may contribute to isolation and low
self-esteem in teen mothers, if the stigmas and stereotypes are internalized.
Sandwich and club sandwich caregivers face multiple responsibilities in caring for varying
generations. They can become impacted socially, economically, physically and mentally while
caring for older and younger generations simultaneously. For parents of pregnant and parenting
teens thrust in the sandwich generation and early grandparenthood, tackling additional
responsibilities can cause added stress and strain that may lead to tension and conflicts within the
family. The inability to meet the caregiving needs of everyone can leave the grandparent feeling
overwhelmed and full of guilt.
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Teenage pregnancy and parenthood require role shifts within families. Adolescent parents occupy
two roles simultaneously, that of new parents as well as dependent children. Navigating this
process can prove difficult and can cause stress and tension in both healthy and fractured
relationships. Parental, partner and sibling relationships may be impacted by teenage pregnancy
and parenthood.
Through my research and personal journey, I discovered a lack of information for parents of
teenage parents. Several resources and support assistance are available for grandparents raising
grandchildren but the literature is relatively sparse to address the particular nuances faced by
parents of teen parents and especially those with multi-caregiving responsibilities.
Teenage pregnancy and parenthood potentially force relationships between practical strangers
when the adolescent father and his family are either unknown or barely known to the maternal
family. The expectation that the transition will be smooth as a result can be unrealistic. However,
the commonality of being plunged into early grandparenthood has the potential of creating a bond
between the maternal and paternal grandparents if they can establish mutual respect, foster a
community of effective communication by actively listening to one another, and if they allow their
adolescent parents the time and space to navigate issues that arise productively without taking the
lead in an attempt to resolve their conflicts.
The journey of teenage pregnancy, parenthood, and grandparenthood may require knowledge and
skills that pregnant teens, teen parents and grandparents may not possess. During those times,
families should be encouraged to explore the possibility of seeking professional help. Attending
family therapy can be an invaluable resource for pregnant teens, parenting teens, grandparents, and
siblings residing in the household.
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Therapy can help families create new life plans or provide assistance, adjusting to those already in
place. Clinicians can assist with ways to manage stress, provide effective communication
strategies, offer an impartial ear, or simply provide a safe space to discuss your feelings. They may
also be able to offer resources about support groups for pregnant and parenting teens, and their
families.
A therapist can be a wonderful resource to help grandparents process their feelings regarding the
circumstances surrounding their experience. They can offer ways to manage stress, prevent
burnout, and assist in processing the grief that surfaced around the loss of goals and expectations.
It’s important for grandparents and their daughter to work together to combat the stigma and
stereotype of teenage pregnancy by acknowledging its existence and choosing to focus on the
positive aspects and what is best for themselves and their family.
While we cannot change stereotypes we can choose whether we allow them to hinder us or propel
us forward and we chose the latter. Teenage pregnancy isn’t easy, there are sacrifices for both the
pregnant teen and the future grandparent but through love, communication, mutual respect, and
understanding, the bonding experience that can be shared between mother and daughter can,
however, make the transition a little easier to manage.
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CHAPTER 8: IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
While there is a vast amount of research on teenage pregnancy and parenthood, the impact of
teenage pregnancy and parenthood on the lives of grandparents still warrants attention. The
experiences of parents raising teenage parents differ from those solely raising their grandchildren,
which has received considerable attention. Studies on the impact of early grandparenthood and
more specifically those in the sandwich and club sandwich generations would be likely to prove
beneficial for clinicians offering support to these families and for families seeking assistance and
guidance throughout the transition process and beyond.
Longitudinal studies centered on the long-term impact of early grandparenthood and the transition
of parenting those adolescent parents into adulthood deserve special attention because, as I have
tried to communicate regrading my own personal reflections, the nature of these impacts change
significantly over time. The strategy used for this study of critical self-reflection by the grandparent
of a pregnant teenager, alongside a review of the existing literature, provided new insights about
the impact of adolescent pregnancy and parenting on the lives of the grandparents and the nuances
of early grandparenthood. Additional longitudinal, autobiographical, studies like this could be a
valuable addition to the larger body of interview research.
This study also highlighted the need for future research to include the experiences of siblings
impacted by teenage pregnancy and parenthood. Research that focuses on the co-grandparenting
relationship between maternal and paternal grandmothers also merits further exploration.
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CHAPTER 9: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SUPPORT
The knowledge garnered from this study can be used to help design health care interventions that
can support and assist families during the complex process of navigating the transition into teenage
pregnancy and early grandparenthood. The voices of maternal grandmothers about their
experience, rarely acknowledged throughout the research on adolescent pregnancy, is highlighted
in this study through the author’s lived experience, albeit limited by a single person sample. There
are a number of issues identified in this study that are not adequately addressed in the guidance
literature for parents of teen parents, and for those who advise them in social services, that need to
be further articulated and made available to these two audiences: to parents and teens through the
popular media, including magazine articles, websites, and guidance booklets from social service
agencies. It is clear from my review of the literature that the most effective way to develop these
materials would be for the authors of these materials to find ways to work closely with the teens
and parents of those families who have faced this life changing situation. Friendlier, easily
accessible material that has been written in collaboration with those who have been teen
grandparents (and teen parents) themselves is needed. At this time, the issues that have emerged
from my research and self-reflection that need to be developed or further improved in the existing
advice and support literature include the following:
•! An emphasis on the importance for teens and their families to quickly move on from
spending time on placing blame on others and advise them on how to go about creating a
new life plan.
•! Guidance, for the new grandparents, before the child is born on how to invite others to
establish the kind of team effort that will be required. Collaboration in planning between
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the grandparents and daughter is key of course but also, to the extent possible, all family
members and the paternal grandparents should be involved.
•! Guidance on how to find teen pregnancy and parenting networks, and how to find, or help
create, a local support group.
•! Guidance for teens and for grandparents of the importance of surrounding themselves with
people who can offer sound advice, laughter, love, and support.
•! Guidance for the grandparent on the important elements to include when establishing the
plan on how to move forward, before the child is born. A particularly important part of
this plan will be to reach the teenager on the importance of continuing her studies and to
articulate the multiple ways of supporting her to do this.
•! Guidance for teens and grandparents in dealing with stigmas and stereotypes associated
with teen pregnancy and parenthood.
•! Guidance for teens and grandparents about local government agencies for assistance with
medical coverage, childcare and temporary needs for families.
•! Guidance for grandparents on discussing transiton and adjustment with younger siblings.
•! Guidance for teens and grandparents about individual and family therapy options.
•! Guidance for grandparents in setting healthy boundaries with their teen e.g., entitlement of
childcare from grandparent.
•! Guidance for teens and parents on ways to create space within the home to plan for baby’s
arrival.
•! Guidance for mother-daughters in creating and maintaining healthy relationship during and
post-pregnancy.
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•! Guidance for teens and grandparents on ways to create income to assist with financial
burdens, life insurance, college savings, and retirement.
•! Guidance for single parents of pregnant and teen parents to help them understand the
dynamics of being in the sandwich or club generation (if they are caring for an aging parent)
and ways to cope and manage stress.
•! Guidance for single grandparents in relationships with sharing news of daughter’s
pregnancy and ways to support each other.
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